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By  courtesy  of  the  sadptor,  Daniel  C.  Frenck 

LINCOLN. 
An  American  User  of  Effective  English. 


EFFECTIVE  ENGLISH 


BY 

PHILANDER   P.  CLAXTON 

AND 

JAMES   McGINNlSS 


y>9ic 


ALLYN    AND    BACON 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

ATLANTA  SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,   1917. 

BY  PHILANDER   P.   CLAXTON 

AND   JAMES   McGINNISS 


Nottaiooti  l^teBS 

J.  8.  (Jushing  Co.  —  Berwick  *.  Hiuith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


ADVERTISEMENT 

Effective  English  is  a  complete  textbook  in  composition 
and  rhetoric.  The  authors  have  produced  a  volume  more 
practical  and  more  attractive  than  others  in  this  field. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  English  is  the  most 
practical  study  in  the  schools,  since  it  is  constantly  in 
use  in  every  walk  of  life.  The  present  volume  goes 
further  than  other  books  in  shaping  the  study  of  com- 
position and  rhetoric  so  that  they  will  be  an  asset  to  the 
pupil  on  leaving  school. 

This  utilitarian  aim  is  revealed  throughout.  The  best 
literary  models  are  used,  but  the  work  is  essentially 
practical.  Training  in  newspaper  writing  finds  a  place. 
There  is  a  chapter  on  English  to  Sell.  Letter  writing, 
punctuation,  and  grammar  are  subjects  which  receive  much 
attention.  Oral  English  has  the  important  place  it  de- 
serves. The  authors  are  not  afraid  of  the  Lerm  Business 
English,  but  recognize  it  as  existing  and  as  having  a  right 
to  exist. 

Effective  English  is  as  attractive  as  it  is  practical.  Stim- 
ulating pictures  help  to  develop  the  pupil's  imagination. 
The  subjects  for  compositions  cover  the  whole  field  of 
youthful  interest.  The  sense  of  the  dramatic,  so  univer- 
sal in  young  persons,  is  utilized  as  the  basis  of  exercises. 
The  pupil  does  not  have  to  wait  to  find  how  his  compo- 
sition has  been  received.  His  classmates  are  made  his 
critics,  thus  taking  much  of  the  labor  of  the  correction 
off  the  shoulders  of  the  teacher. 

The  authors  have  given  careful  attention  to  what  is 

-   iii 

459934 


iv  Advertisement 

demanded  of  teachers  of  English  by  those  representative 
bodies  which  are  foremost  in  voicing  present-day  require- 
ments. Numerous  references  will  be  found  in  the  book 
to  the  recommendations  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  New 
York,  the  State  Board  of  New  Jersey,  the  Illinois  Asso- 
ciation of  Teachers  of  English,  and  the  Joint  Commission 
on  the  Reorganization  of  High  School  English,  represent- 
ing the  National  Educational  Association  and  the  National 
Council  of  Teachers  of  English. 

No  book  has  a  better  set  of  literary  models  than  Effec- 
tive  English  or  gives  more  attention  to  the  canons  of  good 
rhetorical  usage.  In  wealth  of  material,  in  attractiveness, 
in  number  of  practical  exercises,  in  literary  quality,  and, 
above  all,  in  recognition  of  the  practical  advantage  of 
good  English .  in  daily  life,  Effective  English  sets  a  new 
standard  for  books  in  composition  and  rhetoric. 

The  Publishers. 
August,  1917. 


CONTENTS 


Part  One. 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 

Part  Two. 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 

Part  Three, 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 

Part  Four. 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 


Elements  of  Effectiveness 

1 .  Effective  Expression 

2.  The  Principles  of  Effective  English 

3.  English  to  Sell 

4.  Effective  Paragraphing    . 

5.  Effective  Seeing 

6.  Getting  Effective  Material 

7.  The  Effective  Use  of  Material 

8.  Effective  Speaking   . 

9.  Effective  Story-Telling     . 
10.  Effective  Revision    . 


PA6B 

1 

18 
26 
45 
59 
65 
81 
93 
111 
120 


Effective  English  in  Social  Use 

11.  Social  and  Business  English     .         .         .       ,.         .131 

12.  The  Parts  of  an  Effective  Letter       .        .        .        .     144 

13.  Kinds  of  Letters 161 

14.  Social  Motives  in  Effective  English  .        .        .176 

The  Four  Forms  of  Effective  English 

15.  Forms  of  Discourse 191 

1 6.  Effective  Narration 198 

17.  Effective  Description 210 

18.  Effective  Exposition 232 

19.  Effective  Argument 250 

20.  Effective  Debate       .        .        .        .        .        .        .265 

The  Component  Parts  of  Effective  English 

21.  Words       .         .         .         .' 285 

22.  Derivation  of  Words 300 

23.  The  Sentence    . 311 

24.  The  Paragraph         .......  325 


VI 


Contents 


Part  Five.     What  Makes  English  Effective 

Chapter  25.  Style 

Chapter  26.  Requisites  of  Effective  Style     . 

Chapter  27.  The  Mechanics  of  Effective  Style 

Chapter  28.  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism   . 

Chapter  29.  Figures  of  Speech     . 

Chapter  30.  Poetry  and  Drama    . 

Part  Six.     Grammar 

I.    Parts  of  Speech 
II.    Nouns 

III.  Pronouns     . 

IV.  Adjectives    . 
V.   Verbs   . 

VI.  Adverbs 

VII.  Prepositions,  Conjunctions, 

VIII.  The  Right  Word 

IX.  Parsing 

X.  Analysis  of  Sentences 

Appendix  A.     Punctuation  and  Capitalization 

Appendix  B.     Suggestions  to  the  Teacher  of  English 

Appendix  C     Finding  List  


Interjections 


PAOK 

349 
358 
377 
389 
401 
413 

440 
448 
460 
470 
474 
494 
498 
505 
513 
516 

529 

540 

546 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Lincoln,  an  American  User  of  Effective  English         .        .         Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Atalanta's  Race.  —  Poynter 3 

Reading  from  Homer.  —  Tadema 5 

The  Boyhood  of  Raleigh.  —  Millais "    .         •  6 

Greek  Girls  Playing  Ball.  — Leighton 13 

Into  the  Woods 15 

Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache. —  Maignon           ....  20 

Freshmen  versus  Seniors 25 

Entrance  of  Joan  of  Arc  into  Orleans.  —  Sherrer          ....  30 

They're  Off! 31 

"You're  Too  Slow"      .         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .39 

Indians 43 

Rouget  de  Lisle 48 

The  Ipanee  or  Ancient  Men 56 

A  Kentucky  Horse  Show 57 

Tomb  of  the  "  Black  Prince,"  Canterbury  Cathedral   ....  62 

Dr.  Johnson  in  the  Anteroom  of  Lord  Chesterfield.  —  Ward         .         .  66 
Stairway.  Boston  Public  Library           .         .         .         .         .         .         .70 

St.  Louis  of  France  in  Palestine.  —  A.  Cabanel 77 

Crossing  the  Line  in  the  440 78 

Palazzo  Vecchio  at  Florence 83 

Ready  to  Start 87 

Fishing  in  Crater  Lake 92 

It  is  There  I 96 

President  Wilson  Reviewing  West  Point  Cadets 104 

The  Pringle  House 105 

Trade  Dressmaking,  Pratt  Institute 109 

Charge  of  the  Scotch  Grays  at  Waterloo. — Thompson       .        .         .112 

Street  Scene,  Cairo .        .118 

Shakespeare  at  the  Court  of  Elizabeth 124 

Topping  the  Timbers 130 

The  Belfry  Tower  of  Bruges 133 

vii 


viii  List  of  Illustrations 

PAOV 

Norman  Stairway,  Canterbury 1 38 

Auld  Brig  o' Doon        .        .        .        . 142 

Egyptians  Plowing 147 

Drawing-room,  Pringle  House 152 

An  Aqueduct 1 60 

Paradise  Road  and  Mt.  Rainier 1 63 

Gates  of  St.  Augustine 1 73 

Winners  in  Contest  at  the  Reindeer  Fair 175 

The  Great  Conde  at  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.  —  Gerome     .        .        .183 

Saluting  the  Flag          .        .         . 190 

The  Dome  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome 192 

Sky  Scraping 197 

Street  Scene, 'Naples 208 

La  Jacquerie.  —  Rochegrosse 213 

Colonial  Entrance,  Pringle  House 219 

Diego  Garcia  de  Paredes.  —  Dore  :  Don  Quixote         ....  228 

Independence  Hall 234 

Perfect  Style  in  the  High  Jump .  240 

Cascades,  Columbia  River,  Oregon 248 

Roman  Chariot  Race.  —  Alexander  Wagner 254 

Nathan  Hale 258 

Mischief  Afoot ! 263 

The  Thin  Red  Line.  —  Gibb .271 

Church  of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua 275 

Cumberland  Gap 283 

Bedouins  of  the  Desert         .........  290 

Waiting  for  the  Signal          .........  295 

One  of  the  World's  Beauty  Spots 305 

Winning  with  Daylight  Between 310 

Michigan  Avenue  and  Grant  Park,  Chicago 316 

Natural  Bridge,  Virginia      .        .         .        • 323 

The  Dream.  —  Detaille 330 

Lincoln.  —  Linson 337 

All  Hands  to  the  Pumps!— Tuke        .        .        .        .        .        .        .345 

Central  Court  of  a  House  in  Pompeii 347 


List  of  Illustrations  ix 


PAGE 


Manistique  Creek,  Michigan,  in  a  Fine  Fishing  Country     .         .         .  353 

Football  Strategy 360 

Indian  Camp  on  Two  Medicine  Lake,  Glacier  National  Park      .         .  367 

The  Battle  of  Waterloo.  —  Francois  Flameng 376 

Woolworth  Building,  New  York  City  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  382 

Capitol  at  Washington 388 

John  Sinook  and  Family 395 

On  the  Greenbrier  River,  West  Virginia 403 

Birthplace  of  Robert  Burns 411 

Moonlight  on  Grand  Lake,  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park        .         .419 

Multnomah  Falls 429 

Lake  Como,  Italy 430 

A  Blue  Grass  Home 438 

Killarney 443 

"  Thought  You  Said  Dinner  Was  Ready !  "  .        .        .        .        .448 

A  Sea  of  Wild  Flowers 452 

The  Finish  of  a  Canoe  Race 456 

A  Midday  Plunge 460 

A  Japanese  Holiday 463 

The  Fujiyama  Bridge,  Japan 468 

A  Nook  in  the  Woods "  .        .        .473 

Columbia  River,  Oregon 478 

One— Two— Three!.        . 482 

Same  Against  Same 485 

'The  Bear 492 

A  Broad  Survey 496 

Ohio  River  Steamers  Caught  in  the  Ice       .        .  ^      .        .        .        .  500 

Bridal  Veil  Falls,  Yosemite 504 

Richelieu  on  the  Dike  at  La  Rochelle.  —  Motte 510 

Blarney  Castle 514 

Wreck,  United  States  Warship 51  & 

When  Will  Supper  be  Ready  ? .        .520 

East  Fork,  Little  Miami        .        .    " 526 

Castello  Orsini      .        .        .        .    ' 534 

Looking  Across  Crater  Lake        •   "*_  * ^^ 


EFFECTIVE   ENGLISH 

PART   ONE 
ELEMENTS   OF   EFFECTIVENESS 

CHAPTER    I 
EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION 


True  ease  in  writing  comes  by  art,  not  chance.  —  Popk. 


Effective  English.  —  The  study  of  English  deals  with 
the  expression  of  thought  in  words.  To  render  Eng- 
lish effective.,  you  must  make  the  expression  fit  the 
thought. 

Note  the  connection  between  thought  and  expression. 
Thought  is,  and  should  be,  first.  But  thought  and  expres- 
sion react  the  one  upon  the  other.  "I  must  feel  the 
thing  first,"  says  Burroughs,  "and  then  I  can  say  it." 
On  the  other  hand,  if  you  strive  to  say  a  thing  well, 
one  of  the  results  will  be  increased  power  to  think 
effectively. 

Talking,  Speaking,  and  Writing.  —  There  are  three 
things  that  you,  as  a  student  of  effective  English,  should 
do.  .  You  should  talk  clearly.,  speak  persuasively^  and  write 
forcibly.  Even  in  conversation,  you  should  use  English 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  yourself  easily  understood.     You 

1 


2  Effective  Expression 

are  sure  to  do  some  speaking,  as  distinguished  from  mere 
talking,  in  school  societies  and  other  organizations.  Here 
you  should  make  your  words  felt.  And  finally,  you 
should  know  how  to  write  so  that  you  will  say  what 
you  intend  to  say.  You  must  make  your  writing 
forcible. 

Not  to  be  able  to  do  this,  puts  you  at  a  disadvantage, 
without  any  good  excuse  on  your  part.  The  ability  to 
speak  or  write  is  not  so  much  a  gift  as  it  is  the  result  of 
intelligent  and  painstaking  practice,  rightly  directed. 
This  practice  and  this  direction  are  furnished  by  the  study 
of  Effective  English. 

Effective  English  as  Preparation  for  Life.  —  Important  as 
this  is  to  you  now,  it  is  still  more  so  in  later  life,  w^hen 
you  come  to  make  your  way  in  the  world.  One  who  ex- 
pects to  rise  at  all  above  his  fellows  must  know  how  to 
talk,  speak,  and  write  acceptably.  If  you  cannot  do  so,  you 
will  be  seriously  handicapped. 

Rhetoric  and  Composition.  —  You  study  rhetoric  for  two 
reasons :  first,  that  you  may  be  able  to  speak  and  write 
effectively ;  and  second,  that  you  may  be  able  to  know 
literary  beauty  when  you  hear  it  or  read  it,  and  be  able  to 
enjoy  it.^ 

The  practical  side  of  rhetoric  is  called  composition.  It 
teaches  the  art  of  arranging  and  expressing  your  thoughts 
with  propriety  and  good  taste,  so  that  they  may  be  under- 
stood without  undue  effort,  and  may  produce  the  intended 
effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader. 

As  you  are  to  devote  both  thought  and  effort  to  this 


1  The  study  of  English  as  a  training  for  efficient  work  should  be  distin- 
guished from  the  study  of  it  as  a  preparation  for  the  wholesome  enjoyment 
of  leisure. 

—  From  the  Beport  of  the  National  Joint  Committee  on 
the  Beorganization  of  High  School  English. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  3 

study,  it  is  well  to  note  the  following  definition  of  rhetoric, 
as  stated  by  Blair,  a  distinguished  authority  upon  this  sub- 
ject. Read  it  over  until  you  have  made  it  your  own.  It 
is  so  well  said  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  improve  upon  it. 

Rhetoric  is  the  art  of  expressing  thought  effectively  in  words. 
The  study  implies  an  investigation  of  the  principles  that  under- 
lie the  accepted  rules  of  cultured  speaking  and  writing,  to- 
gether with  the  application  of  those  rules  in  practical  discourse. 
In  other  words,  it  makes  known  the  secrets  of  literary  effect, 
and  teaches  us  so  to  present  our  thoughts  as  to  influence  in 
any  desired  manner  the  intellects,  the  feelings,  and  the  actions 
of  our  fellow  men. 

—  Lectures  on  Rhetoric,  Hugh  Blair. 


Atalanta's  Race.  —  Poynter. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES  i 

Atalanta's  Race.  —  Study  the  picture,  and  tell  the  following  story 
orally  as  if  you  had  seen  the  race. 

Atalanta,  a  maiden  of  Arcadia,  imposed  upon  her  suitors  a 
strange  condition.  To  have  her  hand  in  marriage  they  must 
conquer  her  in  a  footrace;  if  they  failed,  they  must  forfeit 
their  lives.     Hippomenes  won  by  throwing  three  golden  apples, 


1  The  instructor  is  free  to  use  or  to  omit  this  and  the  succeeding  ex- 
ercises based  on  pictures;  or  he  may  pass  them  by  now,  and  come  back 
to  them  later.  Their  use  is  suggested  rather  than  required,  in  order  to 
afford  abundant  and  varying  material  for  composition  work. 


4  Effective  Expression 

as  he  ran.     Atalanta  stooped  to  gather  them  one  after  another, 
and  thus  lost  the  race. 

Motivation  or  Incentive.  —  Expressing  thought  effec- 
tively in  words  is  greatly  aided  by  what  is 'called  motiva- 
tion ^  or  incentive^  which  includes  three  things, 

(1)  the  purpose  you  have  in  mind  —  for  instance,  to 
tell  a  good  story. 

(2)  your  point  of  view  —  that  is,  the  reason  why  you 
desire  to  tell  it ;  and 

(3)  your  audience  —  that  is,  those  to  whom  you  wish 
to  tell  it. 

Some  high  school  girls  are  on  their  way  to  school.  One  of  the 
number  recalls  a  laughable  incident  which  happened  at  church 
the  day  before.  Her  purpose  is  to  tell  how  a  well-dressed  gen- 
tleman in  the  pew  just  in  front  of  her  accidentally  sat  down 
on  his  new  silk  hat.  Her  point  of  view  is  the  pure  fun  of  the 
thing,  and  her  audience  is  the  group  of  laughing  girls  who  hear 
the  story. 

Was  her  story  told  effectively  ?  -  The  only  way  to  an- 
swer that  would  be  to  know  how  her  schoolmates  enjoyed 
her  picture  of  the  man's  dismay. 


1  Motivation.  To  be  understood  is  the  primary  purpose  of  all  writing  ; 
to  be  interesting  is  a  close  second.  Since  either  purpose  presupposes 
something  to  convey  and  some  one  to  receive,  an  adequate  motive  should 
be  created  or  imagined  for  every  assignment;  for  example, 

Our  City  Streets 

Purpose  —  to  show  why  the  streets  should  be  improved. 
Point  of  view  —  that  of  a  resident. 
Audience  —  the  taxpayer. 

Without  incentive,  writing  is  strained  and  unnatural.  A  real  incen- 
tive is  best ;  an  imagined  incentive  is  better  than  none. 

—  From  the  new  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


Important  Cautions 


Reading  from  Homer. — Tadema. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Reading  from  Homer.  —  This  might  be  called  effective  Greek ! 
With  the  open  scroll  before  him,  one  of  the  group  is  reading 
a  tale  from  Homer,  while  his  listeners  hang  on  every  word 
of  the  story.  Does  he  tell  of  the  deeds  of  Grecian  Achilles  or 
Trojan  Hector  ?    Or  does  he  trace  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses  ? 

Describe  the  picture  and  weave  into  your  description  some  Homeric 
story.     You  may  do  this  orally,  or  in  writing. 

Important  Cautions.  —  Before  beginning  work  on  the 
following  exercises,  let  the  class  name  three  members, 
chosen  for  their  fitness,  as  a  permanent  editorial  committee, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  enforce  correctness  as  to  the  fol- 
lowing seven  items.  ^  The  instructor  in  English  will  be 
a  member,  ex  officio^  of  the  editorial  committee,  and  will 
see  to  it  that  the  members  are  not  overcrowded  by  this 
extra  work.     Let  the  work  he  done  a  little  at  a  time. 

I.  See  that  there  is  a  period  at  the  end  of  each  sentence,  ex- 
cept in  a  direct  question,  where  the  question  mark  is  to  be  used. 

II.  See  that  there  is  a  period  after  all  abbreviations. 

III.  See  that  each  sentence  begins  with  a  capital. 


1  From  Bequirements  in  Form,  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 


6  Effective  Expression 

IV.  See  that  all  proper  names  begin  with  a  capital. 

V.  See  that  the  names  of  the  months,  and  of  the  days 
of  the  week,  begin  with  a  capital. 

VI.  See  that  the  names  of  the  seasons,  when  personified, 
and  the  points  of  the  compass,  when  referring  to  sections  of 
the  country,  begin  with  a  capital. 

VII.  See  that  each  paragraph  is  properly  indented. 

Spelling  List.  —  This  editorial  committee  should  keep  a 
list  of  words  misspelled  hy  pupils  in  their  daily  exercises. 

When  the  number  of  words  reaches  fifty.,  the  list  should 
be  used  in  spelling  drill. 


The  Boyhood  of  Raleigh.  —  Millais. 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


The  Boyhood  of  Raleigh.  —  The  picture  above  is  a  copy  of  a 
painting  by  the  English  painter,  Millais.  His  two  sons  were 
models  for  the  boys  in  the  picture.     It  represents  Sir  Walter 


Exercises  in  Effective  Expression  7 

Raleigh  and  his  half-brother,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  two  of 
England's  most  famous  navigators  and  explorers,  in  their  boy- 
hood, listening  to  tales  of  the  sea.  The  two  young  dreamers 
are  far  away  on  the  wings  of  their  fancy,  as  the  sailor  tells  of 
deeds  upon  the  Spanish  Main. 

1.  What  story  is  he  telling?  Put  your  imagination  to  work,  and 
think  out  some  tale.  You  may  give  it  as  if  told  by  this  seaman,  or 
you  may  tell  it  as  happening  to  yourself. 

2.  Raleigh  and  Queen  Elizabeth.  —  Refer  to  Sir  Walter  Scott's  iiTemV- 
worth,  and  relate  the  romantic  deed  by  which  Raleigh  won  the  favor 
of  his  Queen. 

I    EXERCISES  IN  EFFECTIVE  EXPRESSION  i 

Ida  M.  Tarbell  gives  the  following  account  in  Abraham  Lincoln's 
own  words,  of  how  he  earned  his  first  dollar,  and  of  the  impression 
this  made  upon  his  boyish  heart.  In  1826  he  was  engaged  as  a  ferry- 
man on  the  Ohio,  and  that  put  it  into  his  head  to  go  as  a  flatboatman 
to  New  Orleans,  as  the  custom  then  was  among  the  farmers  along  the 
Ohio  River  in  order  to  dispose  of  products  raised  on  their  farms.  It 
is  told  as  he  gave  it  to  Mr.  Seward. 

Lincoln's  First  Dollar 

"  Seward,"  he  said,  "  you  never  heard,  did  you,  how  I  earned 
my  first  dollar  ?  " 

"  No,"  said  Mr.  Seward. 

"  Well,"  replied  he,  "  I  was  about  eighteen  years  of  age.  We 
had  succeeded  in  raising,  chiefly  by  my  labor,  sufflcient  produce, 
as  I  thought,  to  justify  me  in  taking  it  down  the  river  to  sell. 
After  much  persuasion  I  had  got  the  consent  of  my  mother  to 
go,  and  had  constructed  a  flatboat  large  enough  to  take  the  few" 
barrels  of  things  we  had  gathered,  down  to  New  Orleans. 

A  steamer  was  going  down  the  river,  and  the  custom  was,  if 
passengers  were  at  any  of  the  landings,  they  were  to  go  out  in 


1  The  abundance  of  exercises  provided  here  and  throughout  the  book  is 
for  the  sake  of  variety  of  choice  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Pupils  should 
be  encouraged  to  write  or  speak  on  what  most  appeals  to  each.  No  one 
student  is  expected  to  attempt  all  or  even  a  large  part  of  these  exercises. 


8  Efifective  Expression 

a  boat,  the  steamer  stopping  and  taking  them  on  board.  I  was 
contemplating  my  new  boat,  and  wondering  whether  I  could 
make  it  stronger  or  improve  it  in  any  part,  when  two  men 
with  trunks  came  down  to  the  shore  in  carriages,  and  looking  at 
the  different  boats,  singled  out  mine  and  asked :  '  Who  owns 
this?'  I  answered  modestly,  'I  do.'  *Will  you,'  said  one 
of  them,  '  take  us  and  our  trunks  out  to  the  steamer  ? '  '  Cer- 
tainly,' said  I. 

I  was  very  glad  to  have  the  chance  of  earning  something, 
and  supposed  that  each  of  them  would  give  me  a  couple  of  bits. 
The  trunks  were  put  in  my  boat,  the  passengers  seated  them- 
selves on  them,  and  I  sculled  them  out  to  the  steamer.  They 
got  on  board,  and  I  lifted  the  trunks  and  put  them  on  the 
deck.  The  steamer  was  about  to  put  on  steam  again,  when  I 
called  out,  'You  have  forgotten  to  pay  me.'  Each  of  them 
took  from  his  pocket  a  silver  half-dollar,  and  threw  it  on  the 
bottom  of  my  boat.  I  could  scarcely  believe  my  eyes  as  I 
picked  up  the  money. 

You  may  think  it  was  a  very  little  thing,  and  in  these  days 
it  seems  to  me  like  a  trifle,  but  it  was  a  most  important  incident 
in  my  life.  I  could  scarcely  credit  that  I,  the  poor  boy,  had 
earned  a  dollar  in  less  than  a  day  ;  that  by  honest  work  I  had 
earned  a  dollar.  The  world  seemed  wider  and  fairer  before 
me.     I  was  a  more  hopeful  and  thoughtful  boy  from  that  time." 

—  Slightly  adapted  from  Ida  M.  Tarbell. 

(a)  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  —  For  your  first  effort  in  ex- 
pressing thought  effectively  in  words,  you  are  to  try  the  story  told  above, 
before  you  start  to  write  this  story,  let  us  ask  three  questions  about  it. 

First.  —  Is  everything  else  subordinated  to  the  development 
of  one  leading  idea,  that  of  telling  how  Lincoln  earned  his  first 
dollar  ?  Does  Lincohi  stick  to  his  subject  ?  If  so,  the  story 
has  unity. 

Second.  —  Does  he  tell  things  in  the  right  order,  or  does  he 
get  the  cart  before  the  horse  ?  Is  there  a  proper  sequence  in 
his  relation  of  this  story  ?     Does  his  use  of  words,  of  sentences, 


Exercises  in  Effective  Expression  9 

and  of  paragraphs,  all  help  to  carry  forward  the  story  ?  In 
the  play  of  Julius  Coesar,  where  Marc  Antony's  eloquence 
carries  all  before  him  he  says  of  his  own  speaking,  "  I  only 
speak  right  on."  Does  Lincoln  do  this  ?  If  so,  the  story  has 
coherence. 

Third.  —  Does  Lincoln  reach  the  point  he  is  after  ?  Does 
he  lay  stress  on  the  most  important  part  of  the  story  ?  The 
way  to  tell  in  this  case  is  to  ask  if  Mr.  Seward  caught  the 
point  of  Lincoln's  narrative,  and  if  the  reader  gets  the  point 
of  Miss  Tarbell's  anecdote.  If  so,  the  story  is  told  with 
emphasis. 

You  will  no  doubt  agree  that  both  Lincoln  and  Miss  Tarbell  meet 
these  tests  in  this  case.  Lincoln  is  considered  one  of  the  world's  best 
story-tellers.  And  with  her  stories  of  men  and  events  Miss  Tarbell 
has  caught  the  ear  of  the  people  who  read. 

Continue  to  ask  these  three  questions  about  whatever  you  hear  or 
read.  Put  every  conversation,  speech,  or  piece  of  writing  to  this  test. 
Watch  carefully  your  own  speaking  and  writing  in  this  regard. 

(6)  Testing  Your  Own  Work  for  Unity ^  Coherence^  and  Emphasis.  — 
Let  each  student  write  the  first  item  below,  and  take  at  least  one  of 
the  remaining  items,  orally  or  in  writing.     Test  it  carefully. 

1.  Get  Lincoln's  story  in  mind  by  reading  it  over  care- 
fully. Frame  a  slight  outline,  mental  or  written,  omitting  no 
important  feature  of  the  incident.  Then  write  it  as  it  comes 
to  you,  with  your  outline  in  mind.  When  it  is  written,  test 
it  as  to  its  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  If  necessary, 
rewrite  it. 

2.  Try  to  tell  the  substance  of  the  story  in  about  twenty- 
five  words.     Omit  details.     You  thus  get  the  gist  of  the  story. 

3.  Drop  the  conversation  from  Miss  Tarbell's  story,  and 
tell  it  in  the  third  person. 

4.  Vocational.  —  Tell  how  you  earned  your  first  money. 
Or  give  a  brief  account  of  any  transaction  in  which  you  made 
money. 

5.  Discuss  this  topic :  How  I  could  make  my  living  if  I  had 
to  leave  school  now. 


10  Eflfective  Expression 

6.  Answer  this  question :  How  can  a  girl  make  a  living  in 
my  town? 

7.  Dramatization. — Let  several  students  represent  the 
members  of  an  office  force :  employer,  chief  clerk,  clerks,  sten- 
ographers, the  office  boy.  A  boy  or  girl  comes  into  the  office 
to  ask  for  work.  Deal  with  it  in  a  business  way.  Use  good 
English.     Time,  five  minutes. 

8.  Answering  an  Advertisement. — Let  there  be  written  on 
the  blackboard  an  advertisement  asking  for  students  who  will 
devote  part  of  their  time  to  work  in  an  office.  Several  students 
will  volunteer  to  write  a  reply,  asking  for  the  position.  Let 
one  competent  student  criticize  these  replies  as  to  what  to  say, 
how  to  say  it,  and  form. 

9.  Three-minute  Talk.  —  Discuss  in  whole  or  in  part  the 
topic,  How  high  school  pupils  may  pay  their  own  way. 

(c)  Class  Criticism  on  Unity ^  Coherence^  and  Emphasis.  —  Out  of 
the  papers  submitted,  the  teacher,  without  naming  the  writers,  will 
read  several  papers  or  designate  one  or  more  pupils  to  read  them. 
The  class  are  to  listen  carefully  for  the  following  points,  and  express 
their  views  regarding  them. 

1.  Would  it  have  been  better,  in  the  case  of  any  paper  thus 
read,  to  omit  any  point  ?     If  so,  the  paper  lacks  unity. 

2.  Did  all  parts  of  each  paper  hold  together,  and  did  the 
story  go  straight  to  the  point  ?  Was  everything  in  its  right 
order?  Did  the  paper  read  as  if  a  good  outline  had  been 
made  at  the  outset,  and  as  if  the  writer  had  referred  to  it  in 
preparing  his  paper,  as  the  builder  refers  to  the  architect's 
plans  ?     If  not,  it  lacks  coherence. 

3.  Did  the  story  accomplish  what  it  started  out  to  do? 
Was  the  material  out  of  which  the  writer  made  his  story  so 
expressed  as  to  make  a  better  effect  than  usual  ?  If  not,  it  lacks 
the  proper  emphasis. 

If  any  pupil  chooses  to  give  his  story  orally,  the  teacher  may  select 
some  pupil  to  criticize  it,  with  regard  to  the  questions  given  above. 
This  criticism  must  be  courteous.  In  all  criticisms,  personalities 
must  be  avoided. 


Exercises  in  Effective  Expression  11 

Note.  —  Where  the  high  school  possesses  a  reflectoscope,  it  may  be  used 
to  advantage  here.  Throw  upon  the  screen  one  of  the  papers  written  in 
class,  and  discuss  such  items  as  indention  of  paragraphs,  punctuation, 
capitalization,  and  other  points  coming  under  the  supervision  ot  the  per- 
manent  editorial  committee.  Let  a  member  of  this  committee  conduct 
this  discussion. 

(d)  Effective  Narration.  —  The  stories  which  follow  are  all  easily 
told.  They  should  be  assigned  to  different  members  of  the  class, 
each  student  taking  one.  An  outline  should  be  prepared  in  each 
case.  After  writing  your  story  for  the  first  time,  study  what  you 
have  written  to  see  if  (1)  you  have  told  your  story  flowingly,  that 
is,  without  interruption;  (2)  everything  is  in  its  proper  order; 
(3)  you  make  the  things  that  are  important  seem  important.  Then 
rewrite  the  story  to  correct  any  faults  or  mistakes  you  have  made. 
When  some  of  the  work  is  read  to  the  class,  listen  to  see  how  your 
classmates  have  succeeded  in  doing  what  you  have  been  trying  to  do. 

Refer  to  John  Harrington  Cox's  Knighthood  in  Germ  and  Flower, 
for  several  tales,  simply  told.     Any  of  the  following  will  do. 

1.  Christmas  at  Arthur's  Court.  2.  The  Passing  Year. 
3.  The  Green  Girdle.  4.  The  Adventure  at  the  Green 
Chapel. 

Christmas  at  Arthur's  Court. — This  is  a  story  of  true  chiv- 
alry. At  a  feast,  the  king  had  taken  a  pledge  not  to  dine  that  day 
until  some  brave  knight  should  lay  in  jeopardy  life  for  life,  and 
trust  to  Fortune  for  success.  The  first  course  is  hardly  served 
when  into  that  hall  there  rides  a  terrible  knight,  the  tallest  on 
earth.  In  one  hand  he  holds  a  holly  branch,  and  in  the  other  a 
battle-ax,  forged  of  green  steel  and  gold.     He  issues  challenge. 

At  first  the  king,  and  then  in  his  stead  good  Gawain,  takes 
up  the  challenge.  "  If  he  is  so  hardy  as  to  give  a  stiff  blow, 
and  accept  one  in  return,  let  him  seize  this  battle-ax,  and  the 
Green  Knight  will  bare  his  neck  to  the  stroke.  Within  a  year 
and  a  day,  however,  Gawain  if  he  be  not  afraid,  must  se^ek  out 
the  Green  Knight  and  take  a  blow  in  return."  Gawain  is  not 
afraid,  and  the  blow  is  delivered.  That  proud  head  rolls  off, 
falling  to  the  floor.  The  Green  Knight  stoops  and  catches  up 
his  severed  head,  filling  the  hall  with  terror. 


12  EflFective  Expression 

The  rest  of  the  story  is  worth  the  reading:  how  Gawain 
passed  the  year;  how  he  left  Camelot  to  ride  to  meet  the 
knight ;  how  he  met  the  lord  of  a  certain  castle,  and  the  com- 
pact he  made.  The  adventure  of  the  Green  Girdle  tells  how  at 
the  Green  Chapel  he  took  the  blow  he  had  bargained  for ;  and 
what  then  happened.^ 

(e)  Effective  Description.  —  Read  the  account  of  Nausicaa's  (Nau- 
sic-a-a)  Washing  of  the  Garments,  in  The  Odyssey^  book  vi,  lines  1  to 
137,  William  CuUen  Bryant's  translation,  or  any  good  translation 
within  the  pupil's  reach.  Here  is  a  beautiful  bit  of  descriptive  story, 
where  a  fair  young  princess  of  the  olden  times,  attended  by  her 
maidens,  goes  to  the  river  to  wash  her  raiment.     Describe  the  scene. 

(/)  Narration  and  Description.  —  Read  the  account  of  Siegfried's 
Coming  to  Burgundy  in  The  Story  of  the  Nibelungs,  Lettsom's  trans- 
lation; or  that  of  the  Norroena  Romances  and  Epics;  or  William 
Morris's  Nihelung  Stories.  Tell  the  story,  giving  a  description  of 
Siegfried. 

Young  Siegfried,  king  of  the  Nibelungs,  the  pride  of  Ger- 
man epic  story,  hearing  of  the  beauty  and  loveliness  of  Kriem- 
hild,  comes  to  Burgundy  with  but  eleven  companions.  His 
flashing  armor  and  glittering  vestments,  added  to  his  knightly 
bearing,  attract  the  attention  of  Gunther,  king  of  Burgundy, 
and  the  king  invites  him  to  remain  at  his  court.  For  love  of 
Kriemhild  he  enters  Gunther's  service  and  abides  there  a  year 
without  seeing  his  lady  love.  She,  in  secret,  speaks  kindly  of  him, 
looking  often  upon  him  when  he  is  unaware.  He  distinguishes 
himself  in  various  adventures,  and  wins  the  admiration  and  then 
the  love  of  Kriemhild.  He  overthrows  Hagan  in  a  friendly 
wrestling  match.     Hagan  turns  against  Siegfried  forever  after. 

{g)  Vocational  Guidance.  —  With  the  underlying  thought  of  Lin- 
coln's story  in  mind,  that  is,  the  joy  he  felt  in  money  honestly  earned, 


iThfs  may  be  assigned  to  a  group  of  students,  to  bring  in  the 
stories  one  a  day,  for  four  days.  Or  all  may  be  assigned  at  once  to  dif- 
ferent pupils.  Have  the  best  one  or  two  of  each  set  read  aloud,  without 
mentioning  who  wrote  it.  If  the  instructor  prefers,  Exercises  (d),  (c),  and 
(/)  may  he  omitted  at  this  time,  and  taken  later  in  the  course. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


13 


let  some  one  in  the  class  who  had  quit  school  to  go  to  work,  but 
who  found  that  he  needed  the  preparation  the  high  school  affords, 
and  has  come  back,  discuss  the  first  topic  below,  orally. 

An  oral  discussion  of  the  second  topic,  summarized  by  some  one  of 
the  class  chosen  beforehand,  will  bring  out  important  points. 

The  third  topic  may  be  assigned  to  two  students  for  oral  discus- 
sion, one  boy  telling  what  he  thinks  of  the  work  of  the  traveling 
salesman,  as  an  occupation ;  and  one  girl  discussing  the  profession  of 
trained  nurse  as  a  means  of  livelihood.  Let  a  committee  of  three 
criticize  this  exercise. 

1.  Why  I  quit  school,  and  why  I  returned  to  school. 

2.  What  should  I  consider  besides  pay  in  accepting  a 
position  ? 

3.  My  chosen  vocation. 

(a)  the  traveling  salesman ;  (h)  the  trained  nurse. 

(Ji)  Making  an  Outline.  —  Make  an  outline,  covering  the  points  so 
far  brought  out.     Recite  from  your  outline,  if  called  upon, 
(i)  Definition.  —  Learn  Bla,ir's  definition  of  rhetoric. 


Greek  Girls  Playing  Ball.  —  Leighton. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Nausicaa  Playing  Ball.  —  The  artist's  title  for  this  picture  is 

Greek    Girls  Playing  Ball,  but  the  beautiful   little   story   of 

Nausicaa  at  play  with  her  companions  after  completing  her 


14  Effective  Expression 

task  of  washing  the  garments,  as  told  by  Homer  in  the  Odyssey^ 
naturally  presents  itself  to  the  mind.  While  thus  playing,  she 
discovers  Ulysses  asleep  after  his  shipwreck  on  the  shores  of 
her  father's  kingdom  of  Phaeacia. 

The  Finding  of  Moses.  — Refer  to  Exodus^  chapter  ii,  and  tell  the 
story  of  the  finding  of  the  Hebrew  babe,  Moses,  by  the  daughter  of 
Pharaoh,  as  the  child  lay  asleep  on  the  bank  of  the  Nile. 

Summary.  —  The  high  school  student  should  know  how 
to  talk.)  using  English  correctly  and  effectively  in  his  ordi- 
nary conversation. 

He  should  be  able  to  speak  in  such  a  way  as  to  persuade, 
convince,  and  move  his  hearers  to  think  and  act  as  he 
would  have  them  do. 

And  he  should  be  able  to  write  so  as  to  say  what 
he  intends  to  say,  and  impress  his  meaning  upon  his 
hearers. 

Skill  in  composition,  whether  spoken  or  written,  is  im- 
portant now,  but  it  will  be  increasingly  important  in  later 
life. 

The  ability  to  talk,  speak,  and  write  effectively  is  not 
a  gift,  but  the  result  of  painstaking  practice,  rightly 
directed. 

You  study  rhetoric  for  two   main  reasons  :    in   order 

(1)  to  be  able  to  talk,  speak,  and  write  effectively  ;  and 

(2)  to  be  able  to  discover  and  enjoy  literary  beauty  in 
what  you  hear  and  read. 

One  of  the  first  essentials  in  making  your  English  effec- 
tive is  having  the  right  motivation  or  incentive.  This  in- 
cludes (1)  a  purpose.,  or  knowing  what  you  want  to  say  ; 
(2)  a  point  of  view.,  or  knowing  why  you  want  to  say  it ; 
and  (3)  an  audience.,  to  hear  what  you  have  to  say. 

As  a  means  of  success  in  dealing  with  other  audiences, 
learn  to  consider  your  own  sound  common  sense  and  your 
best  critical  judgment  as  an  audience  that  you  must  win 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


15 


Photooraph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 


Into  the  Woods. 


16  Effective  Expression 

and  please.     Ask  of  your  own  judgment  such  questions  as 
the  following,  concerning  unity ^  coherence^  and  emphasis : 

1.  Does  what  I  say  or  write  go  straight  to  the  mark  ? 

2.  Do  I  say  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time  ? 

3.  Do  I  lay  most  stress  on  the  most  important  things? 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Into  the  "Woods.  —  Who  could  resist  the  invitation  offered  in  the 
picture  on  the  preceding  page?  What  a  place  for  playing  Indian,  or 
for  a  picnic  lunch !  No  neighbors  but  the  squirrels  and  the  birds ! 
Imagination  can  easily  people  it  with  a  crowd  of  high  school  boys  and 
girls,  scattering  to  explore  its  mysteries. 

(a)  Botanizing.  —  On  the  invitation  of  the  Botany  class,  the 
Freshmen  go  to  the  woods.  Sketch  'the  plan  of  arrangements 
for  the  trip.  Where  shall  you  meet,  what  car  line  shall  you 
take,  and  at  what  hour  ?  And  what  flowers  do  you  expect  to 
get? 

(6)  An  Accurate  List.  —  Make  an  accurate  list  of  the  flowers 
that  are  in  bloom  at  the  time  you  write  this.  Make  such  a  list 
several  times  during  the  school  year,  and  save  the  lists  for 
future  reference. 

(c)  A  Corner  of  Your  City  Park.  —  Describe  a  favorite  spot 
in  the  park,  if  you  live  in  the  city.  If  you  live  near  the 
woods,  tell  about  some  bit  of  woodland.  Do  you  know  where 
there  is  a  wild  grapevine  swing  ? 

{d)  A  Snapshot  on  an  Automobile  Trip.  —  You  took  your 
camera  along  on  your  trip.  Have  you  a  snapshot  of  some 
stopping  place,  or  roadside  view,  perhaps  a  bit  of  mountain 
road,  or  a  glimpse  of  some  little  lake?  Attach  it  to  your 
paper,  and  tell  about  it. 

(e)  Bird  Record.  —  Sit  down  for  an  hour  or  so  in  some  such 
spot  as  this,  and  make  a  careful  record  of  every  bird  you 
see  or  hear.  Give  an  account  of  this,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
class. 

(/)  Who  Owns  the  Mountains  ?  Henry  Van  Dyke,  in  Fish- 
erman^ s  Luck  J  tells  that  his  little  son  asked  him,  "  Daddy,  who 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  17 

owns  the  mountains  ?  "  The  father  started  to  name  some  of 
the  men  he  happened  to  know  who  owned  the  mountains 
round  about  them.  The  lad  said,  "  Well,  I  don't  see  that  it 
makes  much  difference.  Everybody  can  look  at  them."  Per- 
haps you  own  some  mountain,  or  lake,  or  sunset  that  wajc 
Tell  about  it. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  EFFECTIVE  ENGLISH 


The  difficulty  is  not  to  write,  but  to  write  what  you  mean. 

—  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 


Unity.  —  Unity  is  that  quality  which  requires  that  the 
leading  idea  have  the  right  of  way.  You  must  subordi- 
nate everything  else  to  the  development  of  this  chief 
thought. 

In  arranging  your  notes  for  the  article  you  are  writing, 
or  the  speech  you  are  preparing,  there  may  be  some  item 
which  you  cannot  fit  in  without  distracting  attention  from 
the  main  thought  running  through  your  article  or  speech. 
There  is  but  one  thing  to  do,  and  that  is  to  cut  this  item 
out  altogether. 

This  is  perhaps  what  one  writer  ^  means  when  he  says 
that  genius  consists  not  so  much  in  knowing  what  to  use, 
as  in  being  certain  what  to  leave  out. 

Coherence.  —  Coherence  is  the  principle  by  which  you  ar- 
range logically  the  items  you  have  left  after  discarding  all 
that  hinder  the  expression  of  your  main  thought.  It  implies 
consecutiveness.  It  requires  that  all  the  parts  follow  in 
proper  order.  The  use  of  a  good  outline  tends  to  strengthen 
the  coherence  of  a  piece  of  composition  of  any  kind. 


i"The  artist,"  says  Schiller,  "may  be  known  rather  by  what  he 
omits"  ;  and  in  writing,  too,  the  true  artist  may  be  best  recognized  by 
his  tact  of  omission.  —  Style,  by  Walter  Pater. 

18 


Emphasis  19 

In  some  instances  the  time  order^  in  others  the  logical 
order^  or  any  7iatural  order  of  events  or  things,  will  give 
the  proper  sequence  of  items. 

Emphasis.  —  Emphasis  is  that  mode  of  expression  which 
tends  to  produce  a  clearer,  livelier,  or  weightier  meaning 
than  would  otherwise  result  from  the  words  employed. 
Among  the  many  methods  of  producing  emphasis  three 
are  most  often  used,  emphasis  hy  position^  emphasis  hy  pro- 
portion^ and  emphasis  hy  repetition. 

When  we  emphasize  hy  position^  we  call  attention  to 
the  thought  by  an  unusual  order  of  words.  A  good 
example  of  this  is  shown  where  the  lame  man  at  the 
gate  of  the  temple,  as  related  in  Acts  iii,  6,  asked  alms 
of  Peter  and  John.  Peter  said  to  him,  "  Silver  and 
gold  have  I  none,  but  such  as  I  have  give  I  thee."  He 
emphasized  his  words  by  the  unusual  position  he  thus 
employed. 

When  we  say  much  about  important  points,  and  little 
about  unimportant  points,  we  emphasize  hy  proportion. 
Emphasis  by  proportion  is  often  accomplished  by  a  skillful 
massing  of  important  details. 

In  Patrick  Henry's  Speech  before  the  Virginia  Conven- 
tion, which  is  full  of  weighty  emphasis,  there  is  a  sentence 
which  is  remarkably  emphatic.  And  it  is  not  hard  to  see 
how  the  orator  builds  up  his  emphasis.  He  has  just 
stated  that  the  colonists  are  not  weak.  He  desires  now 
to  say  that  the  American  people  are  invincible.  We  may 
state  it  this  way ; 

our  people 

are 

invincible 

He  takes  the  word  people^  and  adds  to  the  thought 
several  ideas:    first,  their  number;    second,  the  fact  that 


20 


Principles  of  Effective  English 


they  are  armed,  and  armed  in  a  just  cause ;  and  third, 
that  the  country  in  which  they  dwell  is  unusually  well 
adapted  for  defense  against  an  enemy.  Here  is  what  he 
says,  and  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  finer  example  of  em- 
phasis hy  proportion. 

three  millions  of  people 

armed  in  the  holy  cause  of  liberty, 

and  in  such  a  country  as  that  which  we  possess, 
are 
invincible 

by  any  force 

which  our  enemy  can  send  against  us. 

Repetition  has  much  to  do  with  emphasis.  We  are  told 
that  the  Roman  orator  Cato,  bent  on  the  absolute  destruc- 
tion of  Carthage,  closed  every  statement  he  made,  and 
every  speech  he  uttered,  with  the  ominous  words,  Delenda 
est  Carthago,  "Carthage  must  be  destroyed.'* 


Parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache.  —  Malgnon. 


Exercises  21 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  EFFECTIVE  ENGLISH 

(a)  Testing  for  Effect.  —  Read  how  Hector  lays  aside  his  helmet, 
Homer's  Iliad,  book  vi,  line  505  to  line  633,  William  CuUen  Bryant's 
translation.  1 

Hector,  parting  from  Andromache,  lays  aside  his  helmet  to 
take  his  little  child.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  anything  in 
literature  more  beautiful,  or  more  true  to  human  nature  than 
this.  Eead  it  over  until  you  get  the  story,  then  forget  every- 
thing else.  Put  the  book  aside  and  ponder  over  it.  Picture 
the  scene,  —  the  great  warrior,  the  loving  wife,  and  the  tender 
child,  "  a  babe  too  young  to  speak,"  afraid  of  his  father's  crested 
helmet.  The  hero  lays  it  aside  to  play  with  his  little  child, 
and  then  passes  out  to  battle. 

1.  Tell  the  story,  making  it  as  effective  as  you  can.  Do  not 
attempt  to  tell  it  in  Bryant's  style ;  he  writes  in  poetry,  and  you  are 
writing  in  prose.  Catch  something  of  the  dignity  and  beauty  of  the 
story,  then  tell  it  as  the  words  come  to  yon. 

2..  Examine  your  story  to  see  if  you  have  secured  the  right  effect. 
Try  to  anticipate  and  forestall  the  criticisms  of  your  classmates. 
Test  it  with  regard  to  the  following  points. 

Unity.  —  Is  the  current  of  your  story  hindt'  ^at  any  point  ? 
If  so,  cut  out  any  detail  that  is  in  the  way. 

Coherence.  —  Did  you  get  ahead  of  your  story  anywhere,  or 
is  everything  in  its  proper  order  ? 

Emphasis.  — Did  you  do  what  you  set  out  to  do,  and  are  the 
striking  things  put  in  an  emphatic  way  ?  If  your  story  fails 
in  any  of  these  respects,  rewrite  it  with  more  care. 


1  If  on  account  of  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  books  here  referred  to,  or 
for  any  good  cause,  the  instructor  prefers  to  postpone  this  and  similar 
exercises  until  later  in  the  high  school  course,  there  is  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  he  done.  The  aim  of  Effective  English  is  to  encourage  free- 
dom of  choice  in  composition  material  for  both  teacher  and  pupil.  No 
exercises  in  this  book  are  offered  as  required;  they  are  suggested. 
The  freer  the  teacher  feels  as  to  what  to  use,  and  what  to  omit,  or  when 
to  use  anything  suggested,  the  better. 


22  Principles  o?  Effective  English 

(b)  Drill  in  Unity.  —  Tell  how  to  plan  a  vegetable  garden.  Con- 
sult any  boys  who  have  "  made  good  "  the  past  summer,  working  in 
gardens,  orchards,  or  on  farms,  for  themselves  or  for  hire.  Tell  when, 
where,  and  what  to  plant,  and  why.  Group  your  points  about  one 
central  idea.     Test  your  work  for  unity ;   if  it  lacks  unity,  rewrite  it. 

(c)  Drill  in  Coherence.  —  Refer  to  the  Odyssey,  book  viii,  lines 
120  to  291,  Bryant's  translation,  and  tell  the  story  of  Ulysses' 
prowess  in  the  games  of  Antinous.  Test  your  story  for  unity  and 
coherence.  Do  not  use  any  word,  and  especially  any  incident,  that 
will  not  materially  advance  the  story. 

Antinous,  king  of  Phseacia,  proposes  a  series  of  games  in 
honor  of  Ulj^sses,  his  guest.  During  the  progress  of  these 
games  Ulysses  is  taunted  by  one  of  the  Phaeacians,  who  pro- 
vokes him  to  throw  the  discus.  Ulysses  easily  distances  all 
competitors. 

(d)  Drill  in  Emphasis.  —  Dogs  play  an  important  part  in  modern 
warfare.  They  ferret  out  the  wounded,  carry  dispatches  across  shell- 
swept  fields,  accompany  sentinels  on  lonesome  outposts,  serve  as 
couriers  and  patrols,  and  drag  heavy  loads  over  snow-covered  mountains. 
Think  out  a  story,  orally  or  in  writing,  of  how  such  a  dog,  Airedale, 
Eskimo,  or  shepherd,  helped  a  member  of  his  regiment  in  time  of 
need.     Put  emphasis  into  it.     One  minute,  or  one  hundred  words. 

(e)  Class  Criticism.  —  1.  When  selected  papers  are  read  in  class, 
let  the  pupils  judge  of  but  two  things, — 

Was  the  story  interesting  ? 

Did  it  sound  as  if  the  speaker  or  writer  had  used  an  outline,  so  as 
to  keep  his  story  well  in  hand? 

2.  As  several  stories  are  told  or  read  in  class,  based  on  "  Ulysses 
Throwing  the  Discus,"  let  some  one  student,  chosen  beforehand,  watch 
the  story  part  of  this  exercise  and  report  on  how  it  was  handled,  with 
a  view  to  (1)  unity,  (2)  coherence,  and  (3)  emphasis. 

3.  In  telling  any  story,  let  three  students  report  on  the  para- 
graphing ;  that  is,  how  the  pupils  handled  the  different  parts  of  the 
story,  as  based  on  the  items  of  the  outline  by  which  they  worked. 

(/)   Vocational  Guidance.  —  A  High  School  Project.^  —  Tell  how  to 


1  The  best  results  will  flow  from  encouraging  each  pupil  to  form  a 
specific  project  or  point  of  view  with  regard  to  a  limited  subject  to  be 
presented  to  a  particular  audience,  to  observe  how  well  hf*  succeeds  in 


Exercises  23 

prepare,  plant,  and  care  for  an  old-fashioned  garden.  This  should 
be  in  charge  of  (1)  a  committee  of  girls  who  have  succeeded  in  a. 
project  of  this  kind  ;  or  (2)  a  group  of  girls  who  have  decided  to  have 
such  a  garden  as  part  of  their  school  duties.  The  idea  is  to  have  a 
garden  to  which  one  may  go  at  any  time  in  the  late  spring,  and  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  autumn,  and  be  able  to  cut  a  generous  supply 
of  flowers.  Interviews  should  be  sought  and  reported  as  to  views  and 
suggestions  of  flower  lovers  in  the  community.  The  flowers  may  be 
utilized  for  decoration  of  the  schoolrooms,  or  sent  to  the  homes  of 
those  without  gardens. 

(^)  Business  Letters.^  —  1.  Reply  to  an  actual  business  letter.  A 
letter  selected  by  the  teacher  is  read  to  the  class.  Any  points  in 
doubt  may  be  explained.  The  name  and  address  of  the  firm  is  writ- 
ten on  the  blackboard.  Each  pupil  will  compose  a  letter  in  reply. 
These  letters  will  then  be  submitted  for  suggestion  and  criticism  to  a 
committee  of  three,  who  will  study  them  for  a  few  minutes  and  make 
such  comments  as  the  committee  think  necessary.  The  letters  will  then 
be  handed  back  to  the  writers,  and  a  new  letter  written,  keeping  in 
mind  all  that  has  been  said.  One  third  of  the  class  will  be  put  in 
charge  of  corrections,  each  member  of  this  committee  receiving 
three  letters,  to  be  corrected  by  him  and  returned  to  the  writer  with 
his  criticisms.  All  the  pupils  will  rewrite  the  letter  in  the  English 
notebook. 

2.  Business  letter  written  by  entire  class.  —  Suppose  that  a  piece  of 
statuary,  ordered  by  the  high  school,  is  found  on  its  arrival  to  be 
badly  cracked.  The  shipper  must  be  informed  of  its  receipt,  its  con- 
dition, and  the  supposed  cause  of  the  defect.  A  claim  for  damages 
from  the  railroad  may  have  to  be  filed.  -All  these  matters,  as  brought 
out  by  oral  discussion,  are  to  be  noted  on  the  blackboard.  The  pupils 
will  then  compose  sentences  dealing  with  each  phase  of  the  situation. 
These  sentences  are  to  be  criticized  by  the  entire  class.     Each  pupil  is 


his  purpose,  and  to  learn  from  the  successes  and  failures  of  himself  and 
his  classmates  what  the  most  effective  methods  of  communication  are. 
—  From  the  Beport  of  the  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Beorganiza- 
tion  of  High  School  English. 

1  Suggested  by  The  Teaching  of  High  School  English,  State  of  New 
Jersey,  and  quoted  by  the  new  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  State 
of  New  York.  While  this  anticipates  the  definite  study  of  business  let- 
ters in  Chapter  XI,  it  may  prove  profitable  here.  Its  use  at  this  time, 
however,  is  optional. 


24  Principles  of  EflFective  English 

then  to  write  for  himself  the  proposed  letter.  A  committee  of  three 
will  correct  these  letters.  After  correction,  these  letters  are  to  be 
copied  into  the  English  notebook. 

(h)  Making  an  Outline.  —  Keeping  in  mind  all  the  points  that  have 
been  brought  out  in  class  in  dealing  with  this  chapter,  make  an  out- 
line that  shall  omit  no  important  point.     Prepare  to  recite  from  it. 

Important  Cautions.  -  The  permanent  editorial  committee 
heretofore  suggested,  which  is  to  watch  all  class  or  indi- 
vidual work  with  reference  to  the  seven  points  already 
mentioned  (page  5)  should  note  the  following  important 
items ^  in  addition. 

VIII.  Do  not  write  parts  of  sentences,  such  as  clauses  or 
phrases,  with  a  period  as  though  they  were  complete  sentences. 

IX.  Do  not  suffer  gross  disagreement  between  a  verb  and 
its  subject.  As,  for  instance,  He  donH  {does  iiot  or  doesnH) 
know  any  better. 

X.  Do  not  misspell  any  of  the  following  twenty  words : 
to,  tooy  two,  their,  there,  all  right,  already,  until,  develop,  separate, 
lose,  loose,  chose,  choose,  which,  dining,  whether,  together,  quite, 
quiet. 

Spelling  .List.  —  The  editorial  committee  may  by  this  time 
have  a  second  list  of  fifty  words  misspelled  by  pupils  in  their 
daily  exercise.     If  so,  let  it  be  used  for  a  drill  in  spelling. 

Summary  of  the  Principles  of  Effective  English.  —  Get 

these  points  clearly  in  mind. 

1.  To  attain  unity,  you  must  eliminate  everything  that  is 
not  subordinate  to  the  main  thought. 

2.  To  get  coherence,  you  must  see  that  all  the  parts  follow 
in  proper  order  of  time,  thought,  or  logical  arrangement. 
Coherence  is  best  obtained  by  following  an  outline. 

3.  To  secure  emphasis,  you  must  call  attention  to  the  em- 
phatic part  by  position,  proportion,  or  repetition. 


1  From  Requirements  in  Form^  the  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


25 


Freshmen  versus  Seniors. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Freshmen  versus  Seniors.  —  Did  ever  anybody  have  as  hard  a 
time  as  freshmen  have  ?  At  least  that  is  the  way  it  looks  to  a 
freshman.  Sophomores,  juniors  and  seniors  tell  it  another  way. 
In  this  picture,  two  seniors  are  evidently  planning  some  mis- 
chief against  the  freshmen,  and  they  have  the  freshmen  puzzled. 
The  battle,  however,  is  not  always  to  the  strong. 

1.  Tell  this  story  to  suit  yourself,  according  to  your  grade  in 
school. 

2.  Surely  as  a  freshman  you  can  think  of  a  good  story  where 
the  freshmen  beat  the  seniors  at  their  own  game.  What  the  seniors 
write  will  be  another  story,  as  Kipling  says.  Juniors  and  sopho- 
mores may  take  whichever  side  they  please ;  there  is  room  for  a  good 
high  school  story  here.  It  is  probably  in  a  high  school  camp,  on 
the  seashore,  or  on  the  lakes,  or  by  the  riverside.  Place  it  where 
you  choose.    Tell  it  in  as  few  words  as  possible. 


CHAPTER    III 
ENGLISH  TO  SELL 


Say  what  you  have  to  say  in  the  simplest,  the  most  direct  and 

exact  manner. 

—  Walter  Pater. 


Writing  a  News  Story.  —  In  an  article  in  The  Saturday 
Evenhig  Post^  Mr.  James  Keeley,  formerly  publisher  of  the 
Chicago  Tribune^  now  editor  of  the  Chicago  Herald^  tells 
how  a  great  daily  newspaper  "  covers "  a  wreck  occurring 
during  the  night,  so  as  to  present  the  story  to  its  readers 
the  next  morning.  He  quotes  the  startling  headlines  that 
announce  the  wreck  and  notes  the  fact  that  two  columns 
of  telegraphic  news  in  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  first 
page  gives  the  details  of  what  proves  to  be  the  worst 
wreck  that  has  occurred  in  the  West  for  years. 

This  wreck  is  supposed  to  occur  at  6:30  p.m.,  although 
the  Chicago  newspaper  does  not  hear  of  it  until  8:30,  when 
the  boy  who  handles  the  Associated  Press  dispatches,  as 
they  come  in  through  the  pneumatic  tube,  comes  across  the 
following,  dated  from  the  point  where  the  C,  B.  &  Q.  Ry. 
has  its  headquarters. 

A  passenger  train  is  reported  wrecked  at  Smithville  and 
twenty  passengers  killed.  A  special  train  has  been  sent  out  to 
the  scene. 

The  boy  is  quick  to  see  the  importance  of  the  news  item, 
and  he  calls  out  the  contents  of  the  telegram.  Two  men 
jump  for  the  dispatch,  the  night  editor  and  the  telegraph 


Writing  a  News  Story  27 

editor.  On  the  importance  of  this  wreck  as  a  news  story 
depends  the  whole  make-up  of  the  next  morning's  paper. 
If  important,  it  will  have  first  place,  and  items  that  would 
otherwise  be  quite  important  will  have  to  stand  aside. 
With  the  map  before  him,  the  telegraph  editor  studies  his 
list  of  correspondents  and  their  locations,  but  no  one  is 
available.  He  now  bombards  the  telegraph  offices  near 
the  wreck  with  this  message  : 

Rush  thousand  words  wreck  C,  B.  &  Q.  Ry.  Smithville. 
Query  this  office.     Tribune.     Miller. 

In  requiring  them  to  "  query,"  he  can  choose  the  best 
man  out  of  those  who  reply.  In  this  case,  however,  there 
is  no  response  and  he  now  turns  to  the  telephone  and  keeps 
the  long-distance  lines  hot  for  a  while,  but  as  "  Central " 
aptly  expresses  it,  "Smithville  is  ten  miles  from  nowhere," 
and  unless  some  one  should  unexpectedly  volunteer,  there 
is  but  one  thing  left  to  do. 

Meanwhile  the  city  editor  has  been  talking  over  the 
telephone  to  the  superintendent  of  the  Road  in  the  Chi- 
cago office.  Of  course,  the  latter  claims  to  know  nothing 
of  any  loss  of  life.  He  admits  a  little  shaking  up,  with 
several  injured,  mostly  trainmen,  none  severely.  Part  of 
a  railroad  man's  training  is  to  keep  his  mouth  shut,  es- 
pecially to  newspaper  men.  All  that  is  gained  in  this  in- 
stance is  the  admission  that  there  was  a  wreck. 

Correspondents  at  varying  distances  now  begin  to  send 
in  queries  as  to  the  disaster.     The  following  are  samples: 

Queries 

Headon  collision  on  C,  B.  &  Q.  at  Smithville.  Thirty  killed. 
How  much  ?  ^ 


^The  question  "How  mucli  ?  "  refers  to  the  number  of  words  the 
newspaper  wants.  The  words  head  on  are  written  as  one  word,  headon^ 
to  save  telegraph  expense. 


28  English  to  Sell 

Frightful  loss  of  life  at  Smithville.  Headon  collisioiL 
Forty  killed.     Hundred  injured.     How  much? 

Collision  Smithville.  Both  trains,  burning.  Heavy  loss. 
How  much? 

Headon  at  Smithville.     Fifty  killed.     How  much  ? 

It  has  been  an  anxious  time  at  the  office  and  it  is  now 
evident  that  the  story  is  a  big  one,  and  just  as  evident 
that  there  is  only  one  thing  to  do  and  that  is  to  send  out 
a  "special,"  who  in  this  case  happens  to  be  Brown,  an  old 
hand,  and  one  who  knows  his  business.  He  takes  with 
him  a  telegraph  operator,  who  carries  the  necessary  equip- 
ment for  establishing  a  quick  service  station  at  the  scene 
of  the  wreck.  Brown  is  furnished  the  necessary  transpor- 
tation and  expense  money,  for  which  he  will  account 
later. 

Brown  hurries  to  the  train.  He  is  to  reach  his  point  at 
10:50.  But  his  train  happens  to  stop  for  water  at  a  sta- 
tion twenty  miles  from  the  scene  of  the  wreck,  so  he  jumps 
off  and  begins  to  "  dig  "  for  news.  He  finds  enough  to 
show  him  that  he  is  on  the  track  of  a  good  story,  from 
the  newspaper  point  of  view,  and  wires  a  preliminary 
message  as  follows : 

Good  yarn.  Twelve  to  fifteen  dead,  twenty-five  injured. 
Three  cars  burned.  Headon  collision  between  Pacific  Coast 
flyer  and  East-bound  freight.  Brown. 

When  that  message  reaches  the  Tribune  office,  the  air  is 
cleared.  The  two  editors  concerned  now  know  what  to  do. 
The  night  editor  arranges  his  other  work,  assigning  two 
columns  for  Brown's  report,  while  the  telegraph  editor 
puts  in  his  time  profitably  on  other  work  until  Brown 
begins  to  wire  in  his  story. 

Brown  will  start  to  write  at  11:15,  and  has  at  the  very 
latest  until  12:15.     He  will  write  about  fifteen  hundred 


Writing  a  News  Story  29 

words,  which  may  be  expanded  to  seventeen  hundred  or 
two  thousand,  by  the  addition  of  matter  gleaned  at  the 
office.  The  receiving  telegrapher  will  "take"  the  mes- 
sage on  the  typewriter,  and  it  will  be  put  into  shape  by 
a  sub-editor,  who  will  arrange  the  sub-heads  and  make 
it  readable.  The  headlines  are  the  work  of  a  special 
editor. 

Brown  is  now  at  Smithville.  He  goes  at  things  with 
vim,  interviewing  officials,  talking  with  train  hands,  getting 
a  definite  statement  from  the  engineers  and  conductors, 
questioning  survivors,  listening  to  bystanders,  cross-ques- 
tioning the  section  boss  and  the  keeper  of  the  little  station, 
and  sifting  the  truth  little  by  little,  getting  in  twenty 
minutes  a  clear  statement  of  just  what  happened. 

While  doing  this,  his  mind  is  shaping  the  form  the  story 
will  take,  when  he  comes  to  write.  His  facts  gathered, 
he  gets  down  to  his  writing,  moving  along  smoothly  and 
rapidly.  And  the  very  men  who  have  given  him  his  in- 
formation will  scan  his  account  next  morning  and  recognize 
the  truth  of  what  he  has  written.  This  ability  to  get  at 
the  facts  is  not  merely  a  gift,  although  it  appears  so,  but 
is  the  result  of  long  training  in  news  gathering. 

He  starts  his  story  with  the  statement  that  two  trains 
met,  head  on,  giving  if  possible  the  causes  of  the  collision, 
stating  how  many  were  killed  and  injured,  giving  the  list 
alphabetically,  and  arranged  according  to  those  killed, 
seriously  wounded,  and  slightly  injured,  with  special  note 
of  any  celebrities  killed  or  hurt.  Then  follows  a  care- 
fully detailed  and  circumstantial  account  of  the  disaster. 

While  he  is  getting  things  into  shape,  his  assistant  has 
rigged  his  wires,  ready  for  telegraphing.  As  fast  as  Brown 
writes  a  slip,  it  is  wired  to  the  office  and  is  put  into  shape 
by  the  sub-editor.  It  is  set  up  on  the  linotype  as  fast  as 
it  comes  through. 


30 


English  to  Sell 


Entrance  of  Joan  of  Arc  into  Orleans.  —  Sherrer. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Joan  of  Arc.  —  France  possesses  a  wonderful  legacy  in  the  ro- 
mantic patriotism  of  the  maid  of  Orleans.  Tending  her  humble 
flocks  at  Domremy,  in  the  darkest  hour  of  her  country's  history, 
she  seemed  to  hear  voices  that  called  on  her  to  deliver  her  prince 
and  her  country  from  foreign  oppression.  This  is  a  copy  of 
the  picture  that  hangs  in  the  museum  of  Orleans. 

Take  time  to  get  the  story  of  this  national  heroine,  and  tell  it  in  a 
manner  befitting  the  theme.     It  may  be  told  in  three  parts  : 


1.  The  Maid  of  Domremy.  Her  country's  enslavement;  the  voices 
that  called  to  her  as  she  watched  her  flocks.     Difficulties  in  the  way. 

2.  The  Maid  of  Orleans.  How  she  came  to  lead  the  forces  of  France ; 
how  she  entered  Orleans ;  her  work  as  a  military  leader. 

3.  The  Maid  as  Martyr.  The  circumstances  of  her  martyrdom; 
her  courage  in  trial  and  distress :  her  death  as  a  martyr  for  God  and 
country. 


Exercises  on  the  News  Story  31 


Fhotograph    by  Frank  C.  Sage. 

They're  Off! 
A  fine  start  in  the  440. 

They're  Off  1  —  You  never  saw  a  finer  start  on  any  track. 
Every  nerve  and  muscle  is  strained  to  win.  Wlio  will  come  in 
first  ?  There  is  a  companion  picture  on  page  78  showing  the 
winner  crossing  the  line  in  this  same  run. 

What  do  they  get  out  of  it?  Ask  them  later,  when  as 
American  business,  mechanical,  or  professional  men,  they 
strain  every  nerve  to  win.  They  will  tell  you  that  their  train- 
ing here  is  invaluable. 

Write  a  short  paper  discussing  the  value  of  athletics  in  later  life. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  NEWS  STORY   • 

(a)  Retelling  and  Condensing.  —  1.  Retell  Mr.  Keeley's  story  of 
how  a  news  story  is  written,  in  two  hundred  words.  Omit  nothing 
that  is  really  important. 

2.  Take  your  statement  just  written  and  boil  it  down  to  twenty- 
five  words.  This  will  be  a  little  hard  to  do  at  first,  but  it  can  be 
done,  and  it  is  well  worth  doing. 

3.  Retell  Mr.  Keeley's  story  in  two  hundred  and  fifty  words.  Tell  it 
in  your  own  way.  If  you  so  desire,  tell  it  in  as  many  words  as  come 
to  you,  and  then  put  it  in  th9  number  required. 


32  English  to  Sell 

(b)  Arranging  and  Sifting.  —  Arrange  the  following  facts  in  an 
orderly  way,  combining  and  boiling  down  with  special  reference  to 
unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.     Write  three  hundred  words. 

Suppose  a  wreck  at  Norris  station,  C.  H.  &  D.  R.  R.,  a  circus 
train.  Just  about  daylight,  say  at  5 :  13  a.m.,  in  a  heavy  fog. 
Tramps  supposed  to  have  built  a  fire,  which  spread  to  the 
leaves  and  set  the  woodwork  of  the  bridge  on  fire,  weakening 
the  trestles.  Train  ran  on  to  the  bridge  before  danger  was 
noticed.  Engine  fell  into  the  river,  killing  fireman  and  severely 
injuring  engineer.  Cars  overturned  on  the  bank  of  the  stream, 
killing  several  trainmen  and  three  circus  hands.  Treasurer  of 
the  company,  L.  T.  Byers,  of  the  Cummings  &  Byers  Co., 
owners  of  the  show,  badly  injured,  may  die.  Some  of  the 
finest  animals  also  killed,  and  others  injured  so  that  they  had 
to  he  shot.  A  lioness,  with  two  half-grown  cubs,  at  large. 
Fine  performing  bear  missing,  supposed  to  be  in  woods  near  by. 
Neighborhood  terrorized,  although  circus  men  anticipate  no 
difficulty  in  recapturing  the  animals.  Armed  bands  organizing 
to  hunt  down  wild  beasts.  Circus  managers  offering  large 
rewards  for  return  of  wild  animals,  if  uninjured.  Three  tramps 
arrested,  suspected  of  having  camped  near  the  bridge ;  they 
deny  any  connection  with  the  matter.  Relief  train  dispatched 
to  scene  of  wreck,  with  corps  of  physicians  on  board. 

Later.  —  P.  L.  Brown,  injured  engineer,  died  at  noon. 
Michael  McCarty,  track  walker,  reports  having  driven  three 
tramps  from  camp  last  night.  Thinks  they  may  have  returned 
later. 

Later.  —  Charley  Williams,  farmer's  son,  claims  reward  for 
capture  of  lioness.  Found  her  in  coal  shed,  and  locked  door, 
preventing  her  escape. 

(c)  Getting  the  Vocabulary  Ready.  —  Reporters  and  news  writers,  as 
well  as  others  who  have  to  write  hurriedly,  often  make  a  list  of  usable 
words  for  convenience  in  reference,  before  beginning  to  write.  This 
is  especially  the  case  where  the  subject  or  topic  is  new  to  them.  In 
most  cases,  experienced  newspaper  men  make  this  list  mentally  and 
almost  unconsciously.    From  the  moment  they  are  assigned  to  certain 


Exercises  on  the  News  Story  33 

work,  the  subconscious  mind  is  at  work  formulating  the  outline,  and 
preparing  the  vocabulary. 

To  get  at  the  items  of  information  required  below,  the  class  may 
be  divided  into  three  or  four  groups,  each  group  taking  its  share  of 
the  lists,  getting  the  information  or  reporting  on  points  in  doubt.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  interview  railway  employees  on  some  of  the  points. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  ten  words  relating  strictly  to  the  railway 
train,  selecting  such  words  as  may  prove  useful  in  writing  up 
the  wreck. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  officers  and  employees  of  a  train,  pas- 
senger and  freight. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  ten  words,  adjectives  or  nouns,  relating  in 
any  way  to  the  rails,  ties,  ballast,  roadbed,  right  of  way,  and 
the  fields  near  by.  This  is  to  be  used  in  describing  what  occurred 
in  the  wreck. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  words  referring  to  or  describing 
accidents  of  any  nature,  such  as  might  befall  passengers  on 
a  train  caught  in  a  wreck. 

5.  Select  ten  words  descriptive  of  the  engineer  and  fireman, 
or  helper  on  an  engine.  This  may  include  descriptions  of  their 
appearance,  clothing,  duties,  characteristics,  and  especially  their 
courage  and  devotion  to  duty. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  ten  words  useful  in  describing  accidents 
to  the  locomotive  or  its  tender. 

7.  Explain  the  precautions  necessary  to  be  taken  by  train- 
men and  nearest  railway  telegraphers  in  case  of  a  wreck,  in 
order  to  guard  against  further  accident. 

8.  What  signals  are  given  by  the  conductor  for  starting  and 
stopping  his  train  ?     What  answers  are  made,  and  by  whom  ? 

9.  If  you  discover  a  broken  rail,  a  burning  bridge,  or  some 
obstruction  on  the  track,  how  would  you  stop  the  train  in  day- 
light or  at  night  ? 

10.  Make  a  list  of  "first  aid  to  the  injured,"  for  use  in  case 
of  accident  or  wreck. 

11.  What  kinds  of  cars  make  up  the  large  passenger  train  oi 
"  flyer  "  ?     Name  the  kinds  of  cars  found  in  a  large  freight  train. 


34  English  to  Sell 

(d)  Vocational  Guidance.  —  A  glance  at  the  list  below,  which  in- 
dicates a  few  of  the  many  vocations  dependent  upon  the  use  of  effec- 
tive English,  will  show  how  English  to  Sell  concerns  the  making  of 
your  living.! 

Talking.  —  Clerks,  salesmen,  students,  teachers,  library 
workers,  insurance  and  real  estate  men,  land  agents,  contractors, 
purchasing  agents,  recruiting  agents,  promoters,  stock  and  bond 
salesmen,  information  and  employment  bureau  workers,  book 
agents,  representatives,  and  traveling  salesmen. 

Speaking.  —  Officers  and  members  of  literary  and  social 
societies  in  high  school  and  elsewhere,  in  the  young  people's 
societies  of  the  various  churches,  Y.  W.  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  members 
of  Greek  Letter  fraternities  at  college,  workers  in  the  federated 
and  other  women's  clubs,  politicians,  actors,  public  speakers 
and  lecturers,  physicians,  lawyers,  teachers,  and  ministers. 

Writing.  —  Civil  service  employees,  clerks,  private  secretaries, 
stenographers,  stenotypists,  employees  in  railroad  and  business 
offices,  reporters,  news  writers,  editors,  advertising  writers, 
short  story  and  magazine  writers,  play  writers,  politicians, 
physicians,  teachers,  lawyers,  and  ministers. 

(e)  Selling  Your  English.  —  In  the  following  exercises,  you  are  to 
show  how  you  can  make  money  by  the  use  of  effective  English. 

1.  Talking.  —  1.  How  a  cartoonist  makes  money.  Let  some 
boy  or  girl  who  expects  to  take  up  cartooning  answer,  and 
illustrate  by  drawings  on  the  blackboard.  Explain  the  uses 
of  cartoons  for  newspaper  and  magazine  work ;  for  street  car 
and  window  advertising,  and  for  sign  writing.     Three  minutes. 

2.  Let  me  show  you  some  of  the  features  of  ournew  reaper.  Let 
two  students  who  have  looked  up  the  facts,  and  have  rehearsed 
the  scene,  represent  an  up-to-date  farmer  and  the  salesman  of 
an  agricultural  implement  house.     One  of  the  boys  ought  to 


1  Composition  teaching  involves  guidance  in  gathering,  selecting,  or- 
ganizing, and  presenting  ideas  for  the  sake  of  informing,  persuading,  en- 
tertaining, or  inspiring  others.  —  From  the  Beport  of  the  National  Joint 
Committee  on  the  Beorganization  of  High  School  English. 


Exercises  on  the  News  Story  35 

know  something  about  farming,  and  the  other  ought  to  be  a 
salesman.  If  you  have  two  girls  who  can  do  it  better,  let 
them  try  it.     Four  minutes. 

3.  Let  me  sell  you  a  yearns  subscription  to  The  Literary 
Digest  or  The  Saturday  Evening  Post.  Let  two  girls  represent 
a  well-to-do  housekeeper  and  a  student  who  is  paying  her  way 
through  high  school.  Demonstrate  by  using  this  week's  issue 
of  the  paper.  Get  the  subscription  by  deserving  it.  Go  through 
all  the  steps  that  a  first  class  agent  takes,  including  signing  up 
the  subscriber. 

4.  Let  me  sell  you  a  set  of  O.  Henry^s  short  stories.  Get 
your  facts  from  the  publishers.  Study  the  interesting  career 
of  this  writer,  and  learn  something  about  at  least  one  of  his 
stories.  Make  a  telling  talk,  such  as  ought  to  win  a  sale. 
Five  minutes. 

5.  Alloio  me  to  show  you  the  importance  of  being  a  subscriber 
to  the  telephone.  Prepare  yourself  so  well  that  it  will  be  worth 
while  for  the  telephone  company  to  secure  your  services  as  a 
representative.     Three  minutes. 

6.  /  wish  to  offer  some  good  reasons  why  I  think  the  high 
school  should  give  a  play  for  the  benefit  of  the  school  treasury. 
Four  minutes. 

7.  Let  me  sell  you  a  five-acre  farm.  This  may  be  either  a 
piece  of  suburban  property,  subdivided  in  this  manner  as  an 
attractive  proposition  for  resident  purposes,  or  it  may  be 
Florida  land.  Let  arrangements  be  made  with  some  company 
making  such  an  offer,  and  make  it  an  actual  business  proposition. 
After  trying  it  on  the  class,  go  out  and  make  actual  sales.  Five 
minutes. 

II.  Speaking.  —  1.  Stand  before  the  class  and  tell  How  to 
play  basket  ball,  according  to  this  yearns  rules.  Four  minutes. 
Put  this  into  an  article  of  four  hundred  words.  This  is  to 
be  written  after  you  have  spoken.^ 


1  Subjects  for  oral  and  written  compositions  should  be  drawn  mainly 
from  the  pupil's  own  life  and  experience  in  tlie  home,  the  school,  and  the 
community.      The  individual  should   be  encouraged  to  draw  upon   his 


36  English  to  Sell 

2.  I  won  a  dollar  from  my  father  yesterday.  He  said  1 
couldnH  make  old-fashioned  gingerbread.  —  Offer  the  ginger- 
bread to  prove  your  assertion.  Tell  the  story,  giving  the  rec- 
ipe, in  three  minutes.  Spice  your  story,  as  well  as  your 
gingerbread.     Write  it  in  three  hundred  words. 

3.  A  school-made  fireless  cooker.  —  Let  either  the  manual 
training,  or  the  domestic  arts  department  make  a  fireless 
cooker  out  of  materials  within  your  reach.  Demonstrate  its 
success  by  opening  it  after .  your  speech,  letting  the  class 
sample  your  cooking.  Four  minutes.  Write  it  in  four  hun- 
dred words.     Append  a  photograph. 

4.  Overcoming  a  handicap.  —  In  a  five  minutes'  speech  show 
how  this  is  done  by  citing  such  cases  as  you  find  in  the  life  of 
Helen  Keller,  Mary  Antin,  Jacob  Riis,  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
Abraham  Lincoln,  0.  Henry,  and  especially  of  those  whom 
you  know  personally.  Put  it  afterwards  into  a  five  hundred 
word  article. 

5.  How  my  grandfather  used  his  knowledge  of  skating  to  good 
advantage.  —  Tell  this,  or  some  such  story,  in  three  minutes. 
Was  he  pursued  on  the  ice  by  wolves ;  or  did  he  seek  aid 
against  an  Indian  attack;  or  did  he  carry  important  news  to 
the  Americans  in  some  campaign,  using  his  skates  for  greater 
speed?  After  your  talk,  put  your  story  into  a  three  hun- 
dred word  article. 

III.  Writing.  —  1.  How  to  market  short  and  well-written 
articles.  —  If  you  know  some  literary  worker,  seek  an  interview, 
and  get  your  facts.  Go  to  the  library,  state  your  topic, 
and  get  all  the  help  that  offers  there.  Ask  for  up-to-date 
magazine  articles  dealing  with  the  subject.  No  matter  how 
much  material  you  have,  boil  it  down  to  four  hundred  words 
brimful  of  interest  and  information. 

2.  Shall  a  girl  study  stenography,  or  prepare  herself  for 
teaching? — Get  what  facts  you  can  that  in  your  judgment 


peculiar  resources  and  to  exploit  his  dominant  interests. — From  the 
Report  of  the,  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Beorganization  of  High 
School  English. 


Exercises  on  the  News  Story  37 

bear  on  the  question  relating  to  advantages,  opportunities, 
salary,  social  status,  and  whatever  else  suggests  itself  to  you. 
Treat  both  sides  of  the  question  fairly,  and  let  your  readers 
decide.     Three  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

3.  The  mothei-'s  dub  and  school  lunches.  —  If  you  have  this 
plan,  explain  it.  If  not,  visit  some  school  where  it  is  in  suc- 
cessful operation,  and  get  the  facts.  Include  any  suggestions 
of  your  own  as  to  betterment  of  service.    Four  hundred  words. 

4.  Paying  their  own  way.  —  Look  up  the  cases  of  one  boy 
and  one  girl  who  pay  their  way  through  high  school.  Avoid 
giving  offense  by  your  statement.  Write  in  a  vein  calculated 
to  inspire  others,  and  show  how  pupils  with  some  initiative 
may  get  an  education.     Five  hundred  words. 

5.  Making  the  printing  department  of  the  high  school  self- 
supporting.  —  Let  a  committee  of  five  of  the  most  practical  and 
energetic  students  of  the  English  class  endeavor  to  solve  this 
problem,  and  bring  in  a  report  in  a  five  hundred  word  article. 
Each  of  the  five  may  make  a  five  minute  speech,  but  the  report 
should  reflect  the  views  of  a  majority  of  the  committee. 

(/)  Important  Suggestions  on  English  to  Sell.  —  Any  manuscript 
written  with  the  idea  of  offering  it  for  sale  should  be  in  perfect  shape, 
both  as  to  its  English  and  its  appearance.  To  offer  anything  less 
than  excellent  material  is  an  insult  to  the  intelligence  of  those  to 
whom  it  is  offered. 

Remember  that  the  topics  here  offered  are  suggestive.  —  Do  a  little 
thinking,  and  with  these  suggestions  in  mind,  find  some  striking  title 
or  theme  of  your  own  on  which  to  write.  Get  out  of  the  beaten  path 
if  you  have  any  ambition  to  sell  your  English.  But  do  not  go  too  far 
afield.  The  very  first  step  out  of  the  beaten  path  may  discover  to  you 
something  for  which  some  editor  is  eagerly  waiting. 

Watch  a  skilled  workman  as  he  turns  out  some  finished  product. 
Work  as  patiently  and  intelligently  at  your  work  as  he  does  at  his. 
Let  the  best  workman  you  know  teach  you  how  to  work. 

^  1.   How  I  Came  to  Sell  My  English.  —  It  will  be  well  worth 

while  for  you  to  arrange  to  have  some  successful  news  or  maga- 
zine writer  address  the  English  class  and  their  invited  guests 
on  how  he  happened  to  choose  his  present  line  of  work,  that  is, 


38  English  to  Sell 

on  how  he  came  to  sell  the  product  of  his  pen.  This  same 
topic  would  be  of  interest  in  the  case  of  a  good  advertising 
writer. 

Arrange  the  date  far  enough  ahead  to  admit  of  sending  out 
invitations  to  the  parents  and  friends  of  the  members  of  the 
class,  to  the  faculty,  and  to  the  members  of  the  high  school. 
These  invitations  should  be  the  work  of  the  English  class,  and 
should  be  prepared  in  correct  form.  This  will  afford  good 
practice  for  the  class. 

2.  Putting  English  in  Shape  to  Sell,  —  This  can  be  made 
a  practical  talk  of  great  value  to  the  class,  if  you  can  secure 
some  one  who  is  doing  newspaper  work,  for  instance,  some 
former  member  of  your  high  school.  What  is  wanted  is  the 
modern  requirements  of  newspaper  and  magazine  work  so  far 
as  the  preparation  of  manuscript  for  publication  is  concerned. 

3.  The  Truth  about  an  Author.  —  Let  one  or  more  pupils 
bring  in  a  report  on  Arnold  Bennett's  book  on  this  subject.  He 
tells  how  he  was  led  to  adopt  writing  as  a  profession,  and  gives 
valuable  hints  as  to  his  work.  Of  course,  his  experience  was 
in  England,  and  allowance  must  be  made  for  this.  Opportuni- 
ties for  the  young  writer,  however,  are  better  here  than  in 
England. 

4.  Impersonation.  —  Let  several  pupils  impersonate  promi- 
nent and  interesting  characters  in  English  literature,  past  and 
present.  Say,  for  example,  Shakespeare,  Dr.  Johnson,  Gold- 
smith, Pope,  Lord  Byron,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  or  Robert  Burns, 
in  the  past;  and  Mark  Twain,  Bret  Harte,  O.  Henry,  Jack 
London,  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  or  Poe,  Longfellow,  Emerson, 
Whittier,  or  others  of  our  poets. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  read  the  history  of  each,  and  see 
just  how  he  came  to  write.  Study  the  costume,  and  endeavor  to 
make  np  so  as  to  resemble  the  character  chosen  for  impersona- 
tion. Let  each  character  tell  how  he  sold  his  English.  To 
make  this  effective  as  a  dramatization,  let  a  committee  prepare 
it  as  a  school  play,  and  let  this  committee  drill  for  the  presen- 
tation. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  39 


"You're  Too  Slow!" 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

"You're  Too  Slow  I  "  —  A  jolly  party  of  high  school  boys  and 
girls,  with  their  chaperones,  are  out  for  a  canter  over  a  moun- 
tain road  in  Old  Virginia.  Some  one  proposes  a  race,  and  away 
they  scamper.  This  girl,  a  fine  horsewoman  with  a  speedy  ani- 
mal, seems  to  have  outdistanced  the  rest.  As  she  will  gleefully 
tell  it  when  they  get  back  home,  "  They  also  ran !  '^  Just  now, 
she  is  waiting  for  them  to  catch  up  with  her,  and  laughing  at 
their  discomfiture. 

1.  Tell  this  or  some  other  story  of  a  delightful  morning  ride. 

2.  If  you  care  to  do  so,  dramatize  the  story.  Tell  it  in  conversa- 
tional style,  and  as  if  it  were  a  part  of  the  school  play.  If  you  do 
this,  do  not  forget  how  to  arrange  your  paragraphs. 

Important  Cautions.  —  The  permanent  editorial  committee 
whose  function  is  to  watch  for  correctness  in  form  will  do 
well  to  note  the  following  additional  items  ^ : 

XI.  Do  not  forget  that  a  margin  is  required  at  the  left  of 
the  paper.  There  may  be  a  margin  at  the  right,  if  desired, 
but  this  is  not  imperative. 


1  From  Btquirements  in  Form,  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 


40  English  to  Sell 

XII.  Avoid  leaving  open  spaces  at  the  right.  Write  as 
near  the  end  of  the  line  as  possible,  without  crowding. 

XIII.  See  that  there  is  a  proper  division  of  words  at  the 
end  of  the  line.     Allow  no  words  of  one  syllable  to  be  divided. 

Division  of  Words.  —  Note  the  following  suggestions 
with  regard  to  the  division  of  words. 

1.  Avoid  the  unnecessary  division  of  a  word.  Never 
divide  proper  names,  or  words  like  ar-range. 

2.  Never  carry  over  two  letters  only.  That  is,  in  cases 
like  divided,  correctly,  fortify,  do  not  carry  over  the  last  sylla- 
ble, -ed,  -ly,  -fy. 

3.  Do  not  divide  Jlower,  power,  prayer,  toward,  and  voyage. 

4.  In  words  compounded  with  prefixes,  divide  on  the  pre- 
fix.    As,  dis-content,  dis-appear,  sub-divide,  contra-diet,  un-usucU. 

5.  Note  how  these  words  are  written :  consider-able,  fashion- 
able, reprehensible,  diri-gible.  This  does  not  apply  to  Orme-na- 
ble  and  char-i-torble. 

6.  Remember  these  divisions :  atmos-phere,  hemisphere, 
knowl-edge,  twiii-Jcling,  chuc-kling. 

7.  Carry  over  the  t  in  words  like  adven-ture,  fea-ture,  for- 
tune, pic-ture,  presump-tuous. 

8.  In  present  participles,  ordinarily,  carry  over  the  -ing; 
as  teach-ing,  forg-ing,  mak-ing,  driv-ing,  charg-ing. 

9.  If  a  word  already  has  a  hyphen,  do  not  use  an  additional 
hyphen ;  as,  selfinjlicted,  longsufferiiig.  Do  not  divide  the  word 
after  the  hyphen. 

10.  Note  the  following:  preposition,  conta-gion,  derision, 
provision,  reli-gion. 


Notes  on  Spelling.  —  It  is  time  for  the  editorial  committee 
to  take  stock  of  the  class  in  the  matter  of  spelling.  In  so 
doing,  your  instructor  in  English  will  act  ex  officio  as  a 
member  of  your  committee. 

If  the  suggestions  heretofore  made  have  been  carried  out, 
you  have  three  carefully  prepared  lists  of  words  misspelled 


Important  Cautions  41 

by  the  class,  or  by  members  of  the  class.  You  have  doubt- 
less noted  that  the  members  of  the  English  class  are 
divided  into  something  like  the  following  divisions. 

1.  One  or  more  students  who  make  practically  no  mistakes 
in  spelling. 

2.  A  fair  proportion  of  students  who  average  high  in  spell- 
ing, but  who  make  a  mistake  now  and  then. 

3.  Several  students  who  do  fairly  well,  but  who  are  never 
quite  certain  about  their  spelling.  They  may,  perhaps,  do 
pretty  well  in  words  recently  used,  or  that  have  been  lately 
acquired,  but  they  make  mistakes  in  the  spelling  of  the  little 
words  that  serve  to  bind  the  sentences  together.  It  will  not 
be  hard,  to  bring  the  members  of  this  class,  or  most  of  them, 
up  to  Class  2. 

4.  A  number  of  students  who  are  habitually  poor  in  spelling. 

You  will  have  accomplished  much  if  you  succeed  in 
recognizing  these  four  classes,  and  in  giving  your  instruc- 
tor accurate  information  with  regard  thereto. 

Important  Cautions. — In  the  care  that  the  editorial  com- 
mittee continues  to  exercise,  pay  special  attention  to  the 
following  points: 

XIY.  The  spelling  of  proper  names  occurring  in  the  litera- 
ture read  by  the  class  in  English  ; 

XY.   Words  misspelled  in  compositions  ;  and 

XYI.   In  general,  all  words  in  the  pupils'  vocabulary. 

Outline  and  Summary.  —  Prepare  an  outline,  and  be  pre- 
pared to  recite  from  it  if  called  upon.  Let  the  outline 
cover  the  important  points  brought  out  in  this  chapter, 

EXERCISE  ON  SPELLING 

Conference  on  Spelling.^  —  It  may  be  well  to  hold  a  class  conference 
on  spelling,  acquainting  the  class  as  a  whole  with  the  method  of 
dividing 'the  students  into  the  respective  classes.     Do  not  name  the 


1  Suggested  by  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York- 


42  English  to  Sell 

students  composing  these  divisions  before  the  class,  but  deal  with 
them  individually,  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three.  Seek  to  impress 
upon  all  the  importance  of  good  spelling. 

(a)  Call  on  the  individual  members  of  tlie  English  class  to 
state  what  words  now  give  them  most  trouble.  As  these 
troublesome  words  are  indicated,  let  them  be  written  neatly 
and  correctly  on  the  blackboard,  say  to  the  number  of  one 
hundred,  and  then  copied  carefully  into  the  English  notebooks 
for  reference,  practice,  and  review. 

(5)  Call  on  each  member  of  the  class  to  indicate  one  or  more 
words  that  formerly  gave  him  trouble,  but  which  no  longer  do 
so.  Let  him  tell  how  he  remembers  the  correct  spelling  of 
words  of  this  kind.  As  for  instance,  separate  =  sep-a-rate ; 
singeing  =  singe-ing ;  ascertain  =  as-cer-tain.  Keep  a  careful 
list  of  these  words,  to  be  written  in  the  English  notebooks. 
See  that  every  member  of  the  class  can  spell  the  words  of  this  list. 

(c)  Let  some  pupil,  or  several  pupils,  state  how  to  remember 
the  correct  spelling  of  words  like  believe,  conceive,  deceive,  receive, 
and  retrieve.  There  are  several  rules  which  may  be  used,  one  of 
them  being  that  usually  ei  follows  s  or  c,  and  that  elsewhere 
the  combination  is  ie.     Siege,  sieve,  and  leisure  are  exceptions. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

On  the  Lookout  1  —  What  are  these  red  men  watching  ?  Keen 
eyed,  they  evidently  are  studying  something  that  interests  them 
deeply.  It  may  be  a  deer  swimming  across  the  lake,  or  a  canoe 
full  of  Indians,  or  they  may  be  watching  a  bear  on  the  other 
side  of  the  lake,  as  he  comes  down  to  drink.  These  are  mem- 
bers of  the  Blackf  eet  tribe. 

1.  Think  out  a  story  that  shall  include  these  watchers,  and  tell  it  in 
your  own  way.  You  may  be  in  camp  near  here,  or  see  them  as  you 
pass.     Make  the  story  reasonably  true  to  life,  and  prepare  it  "  to  sell." 

2.  An  Indian  Story. —  Refer  to  one  of  Cooper's  Leather  Stocking  Tales, 
or  to  some  story  in  United  States  history,  having  to  do  with  Indians, 
and  tell  it,  orally  or  in  writing.  If  there  are  Indian  traditions  con- 
nected with  your  own  neighborhood,  give  a  good  account  of  them, 
watching  your  spelling  especially. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


43 


Indians. 
On  Two  Medicine  Lake,  Glacier  National  Park. 

Preparation  of  Manuscript  for  " English  to  Sell" 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  effective  manu- 
script, where  your  English  is  offered  for  sale.  Note  the  following 
suggestions : 

1.  Use  sermon  note,  or  theme  paper,  usually  cut  eight  inches 
wide  and  ten  and  a  half  inches  long.  Use  black  ink,  but  as 
soon  as  it  is  possible  for  you  to  do  so,  use  the  typewriter,  with 
either  a  black  or  a  clear  blue  ribbon. 

2.  Write  on  only  one  side  of  the  sheet.  You  will  waste  time 
and  postage  if  you  neglect  this  imperative  rule. 

3.  Leave  a  margin  of  one  inch  at  the  left  of  the  paper  for 
corrections.  If  the  paper  is  not  ruled  for  this  margin,  you 
may  rule  it  lightly  in  pencil  and  erase  it  later,  if  you  choose. 
Before  long,  however,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  depend  on  ruled 
lines.    At  the  right  of  the  paper,  leave  a  margin  of  half  an  inch. 


44  English  to  Sell 

4.  Begin  each  paragraph  an  inch  from  the  margin,  or  five 
spaces  on  the  typewriter.  This  is  called  indenting.  Do  not 
indent  where  no  paragraph  is  intended. 

Write  the  title  so  as  to  occupy  the  center  of  the  first  line. 
Use  capitals  for  the  most  important  words  of  the  title.  The 
last  word  of  the  title  is  always  capitalized.  If  more  than  one 
line  is  needed  for  the  title,  and  there  is  not  enough  to  fill  the 
second  line,  arrange  it  so  as  to  leave  an  equal  space  on  each 
side.  This  is  called  centering.  Begin  the  body  of  the  theme 
on  the  second  line  below. 

5.  Except  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  avoid  leaving  too 
much  space  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Do  not  divide  a  word  in  the 
middle  of  a  syllable,  and  do  not  carry  over  less  than  three 
letters. 

6.  Count  your  words.  At  the  end  of  each  page,  indicate 
in  parenthesis  the  number  of  words.  Show  the  entire  number 
of  words,  in  parenthesis,  at  the  close  of  your  article  or  story. 
Count  a,  an,  and  the,  as  words. 

7.  Keep  the  sheets  flat.  Never  roll  a  manuscript.  You 
may  arrange  the  sheets  carefully,  and  fold  together  once 
lengthwise,  writing  the  title,  your  name,  the  date,  and  the 
number  of  .words,  each  upon  one  line,  in  the  upper  left-hand 
corner.    In  writing  your  name,  include  your  post-office  address. 

8.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  rewrite  yojir  manuscript.  Do  not 
mail  anything  but  perfect  manuscript. 

9.  Inclose  return  postage.  Do  not  fasten  this  to  the  sheet, 
but  put  it  in  a  small  envelope,  and  clip  it  to  the  sheet.  With 
the  postage^  include  your  name  and  post-office  address. 


CHAPTER  IV 
EFFECTIVE  PARAGRAPHING 


There  is  some  one  order  more  effective  than  any  other. 

—  Herbert  Spencbr. 


The  Paragraph. — A  paragraph  is  a  sentence  or  group- 
of  sentences  developing  a  complete  thought.  In  most 
writing  and  speaking  the  paragraph  is  the  unit  of  thought. 
The  topic  sentence  contains  the  main  idea,  and  this  is 
elaborated  in  various  ways,  as  by  repetition  or  by  giving 
details. 

Suppose  you  liave  decided  upon  the  following  outline 
for  an  account  of  the  wreck  mentioned  on  page  32.  It 
will  make  three  divisions,  or  paragraphs.  The  first  will 
give  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  whole  story  to  attract  attention 
and  interest.  The  next  paragraph  will  deal  with  the 
points  that  are  suggested  in  the  second  item  of  the  out- 
line, carefully  avoiding  any  points  that  are  to  be  touched 
upon  in  the  third  item.  Emphasis  will  be  added  by  a 
skillful  handling  of  the  third  paragraph. 

The  whole  secret  of  successful  paragraphing  is  to  be 
found  in  this  one  thing,  that  each  paragraph  deals  with  one 
full  thought, 

EXERCISES  ON  PARAGRAPHING 

(a)  Write  a  paragraph  on  each  topic  of  the  following  outline. 
Test  your  paragraphs  for  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

45 


46  Effective  Paragraphing 

Outline 

1.  General  statement,  and .  cause  of  wreck ;  one  hundred 
words. 

2.  Loss  of  life,  property,  and  animals ;  two  hundred  and 
fifty  words. 

3.  Excitement  caused  by  escape  of  wild  animals;  one 
hundred  and  fifty  words. 

(&)  Query  in  ten  words  the  Chicago  Tribune  as  to  the  wreck.  That 
is,  state  in  ten  words  enough  about  the  wreck  to  let  them  know 
whether  they  want  the  full  story.  Refer,  if  necessary,  to  the  sample 
queries  given  heretofore. 

(c)  Wire  one  paragraph  of  one  hundred  words  about  the  above  story. 
Most  newspapers  will  take  an  item  of  not  more  than  one  hundred  words 
without  querying,  that  is,  without  your  asking  permission  to  send  it. 
In  such  case,  however,  the  telegram  must  come  from  a  regular  corre- 
spondent. In  most  newspaper  offices,  any  one  may  query  in  an  im- 
portant happening,  whether  a  correspondent  or  not.  The  editor  will 
answer  if  he  wants  the  story.  If  he  does  not  answer,  the  story  must 
not  be  wired. 

(c?)  Wire  the  above  story  in  two  hundred  words.  Arrange  it  in 
two  paragraphs. 

(«)  Prepare  in  brief  memorandum  form  an  outline,  such  as  you 
think  the  reporter  would  prepare  while  gathering  his  facts,  before 
waiting  his  story.  This  sketch,  or  memorandum,  will  tell  briefly  all 
that  he  will  later  expand  into  the  full  story,  for  the  morning  paper. 

(/)  Study  the  outline  in  (e).  Cut  out  anything  that  hinders  the 
flow  of  the  story.  This  will  preserve  its  unity.  Then  arrange  the 
items  remaining,  so  as  to  have  everything  in  its  time  order,  after  your 
introductory  statement.  This  will  maintain  its  coherence.  The 
story  itself,  if  well  told,  will  furnish  its  own  emphasis.  In  a  news 
story,  the  emphasis  often  comes  in  the  opening  paragraph,  so  as  to 
fix  the  attention  at  once.  This  reverses  the  usual  order,  which  re- 
quires the  most  emphatic  statement  near  the  close. 

{g)  Write  the  story  of  the  wreck,  as  above  given,  from  your  out- 
line.    Let  it  have  at  least  three  paragraphs,  carefully  arranged. 

Development  of  the  Paragraph.  —  It  frequently  happens 
that  the  most  readable  story  in  the  morning  paper  came 


Methods  of  Paragraph  Development        47 

to  the  telegraph  editor  the  night  before  in  the  shape  of  a 
few  words  in  a  cablegram.  His  quick  sense  of  what  con- 
stitutes an  interesting  news  item  enabled  him  to  use  the 
fact  thus  given  as  the  foundation  for  a  story  which  was 
the  pride  of  his  own  paper,  and  the  envy  of  all  his  com- 
petitors. 

In  thus  working  out  his  story  he  may  have  had  to  draw 
on  many  sources  of  information.  He  may  have  used  en- 
cyclopedias, books  of  travel,  or  atlases  with  descriptive 
reading  matter,  telling  about  the  city  in  which  the  event 
occurred.  Newspaper  offices  maintain  a  file  system  of 
photographs  of  all  kinds,  both  of  men  and  places,  and  of 
steamships  and  war-ships. 

At  the  first  suggestion  of  a  great  steamship  disaster,  for 
instance,  everything  that  can  possibly  throw  any  light  on 
the  subject  is  brought  within  reach  of  the  editor.  The 
editor  has  to  work  quickly,  when  he  does  begin,  after 
waiting  until  the  last  minute  for  fuller  detail.  He  adapts 
it  all  so  skillfully  that  when  we  come  to  read  it,  we  cannot 
tell  that  any  part  of  it  differs  from  any  other  part.  It 
all  reads  as  if  the  whole  story  "came  in  over  the 
wire,"  that  is,  as  if  it  had  all  been  received  by  telegraph 
or  cable. 

Methods  of  Paragraph  Development.  —  In  elaborating 
the  paragraphs  the  editor  usually  makes  use  of  three 
methods :  (1)  repetition ;  (2)  comparison ;  or  (3)  detail. 
In  the  first  case  he  repeats  the  substance  of  the  topic 
sentence  in  a  variety  of  ways.  In  the  second,  he  com- 
pares or  contrasts  the  idea  of  the  topic  sentence  with 
other  ideas.  In  the  third,  he  enumerates  details. 
These  details  may  be  (a)  particulars;  (6)  specific  ex- 
amples ;  or  ((?)  effects  of  which  the  topic  sentence  is  the 
cause.  Owing  to  his  practical  skill  in  writing,  the  editor 
does  this  work  subconsciously. 


48 


Effective  Paragraphing 


RouGET  DE  Lisle. 
Singing  the  "  Marseillaise"  for  the  first  time. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  "  Marseillaise."  —  Here  is  pictured  the  birth  of  a  national 
hymn,  the  terrible  yet  glorious  cry  of  a  people  determined  to 
be  free.  De  Lisle,  a  young  French  officer,  is  singing  the 
Marseillaise  for  the  first  time.  Some  of  those  who  listen  are 
struck  by  its  beauty,  some  by  the  terror  of  it,  while  some 
spring  to  their  feet  aroused  by  its  call  to  the  French  heart. 
Never  since  that  day  has  it  been  heard  in  France  without  quick- 
ening the  hearts  of  its  hearers. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  the  picture,  developing  your  paragraphs  in  any  of 
the  three  ways  suggested  above. 

2.  The  March  of  the  Marseillaise. — Kefer  to  the  dictionary  or  to  some 
encyclopedia  and  tell  how  the  Marseillaise  got  its  name  and  became 
the  national  song  of  France  at  the  outset  of  the  French  Revolution. 

3.  The  Star  Spangled  Banner.  —  Look  up  the  story  of  how  Francis 
Scott  Key,  held  as  a  prisoner  by  the  British,  wrote  The  Star  Spangled 
Banner  in  the  bombardment  of  Baltimore.  Tell  it.  Develop  your 
paragraphs  carefully. 


Exercises  in  Paragraph  Development       49 

EXERCISES  m  PARAGRAPH  DEVELOPMENT 
The  Wreck  of  the  "  Titanic  " 

The  story  of  the  loss  of  the  Titanic,  the  greatest  ship  of  modern 
times,  is  given  here.  She  was  launched  May  31st,  1911,  at  Belfast. 
She  was  175  feet  in  height,  882  feet  long,  and  capable  of  carrying 
5800  passengers  and  crew.  She  cost  about  $10,000,000.  She  was 
regarded  as  a  triumph  of  modern  naval  architecture,  and  on  account 
of  automatic,  self-closing  bulkheads,  was  considered  unsinkable. 

April  10, 1912,  Noon.  Starts  on  her  maiden  trip  from  South- 
ampton to  New  York,  via  Cherbourg. 

April  14.  Sends  a  wireless  warning  of  the  pres- 

ence of  icebergs  off  the  50.14  west.  Eeceives  wireless  warning 
from  other  vessels  of  dangerous  icebergs  in  her  vicinity. 
Maintains  unusually  high  rate  of  speed. 

April  14,  Midnight.  Titanic  strikes  iceberg.  Jar  of  im- 
pact scarcely  noticed  by  passengers,  but  whole  side  of  ship 
ripped  open.     Engine  room  and  dynamos  flooded. 

Carpathia  and  other  vessels  hear  the  Titanic^ s  call  for  help. 

*  April  15,  12:27  a.m.  Titanic' s  wireless  is  put  out  of  com- 
mission by  the  rising  water,  but  flashes  with  its  last  flash  that 
the  ship  is  sinking  by  the  head,  and  that  the  women  and  chil- 
dren are  being  put  off  in  boats. 

"  Then  for  hours,  while  the  great  world  waited  for  a  crumb 
of  news  as  to  the  safety  of  the  Titanic' s  people,  not  one  thing 
was  known  save  that  she  was  drifting,  broken  and  helpless 
and  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  waste  of  ice." 

Cablegram,  Scripps-McEae  League,  Newspapers. 

April  15,  2:22  a.m.  Titanic  sinks. 

April  15,  3  A.M.  Wireless   from  Cape   Race   station, 

directed  to  the  Associated  Press,  gives  the  World  its  first  infor- 
mation of  serious  disaster. 

April  15,  5  A.M.  Survivors  picked  up  by  Steamer  Car- 

pathia.    She  rescues  705  people,  mostly  women  and  children, 


50  EflFective  Paragraphing 

from  lifeboats  and  several  life  rafts.  Appalling  loss  of  crew 
and  passengers,  including  many  of  international  prominence. 
The  combined  wealth  of  seven  of  these  thus  perishing  totaled 
more  than  $450,000,000. 

April  18,  9:30  p.m.  Rescue  boat  docks  at  New  York. 
Death  list  totals  1635,  making  it  the  record  maritime  disaster 
to  that  date. 

Facts  Gleaned  from  the  Testimony  op  Survivors 

1.  There  was  the  greatest  heroism  on  the  part  of  the  men, 
both  crew  and  passengers.  The  cry  was  "  Women  and  Chil- 
dren First,''  and  with  but  few  exceptions,  no  man  entered  the 
boats  until  commanded  so  to  do.  The  captain  died  at  his 
post. 

2.  The  lifeboat  equipment  was  woefully  insufficient. 

3.  The  ship's  musicians  showed  unusual  bravery,  playing 
from  the  time  she  struck  until  she  went  down,  although  the 
order,  "Men,  save  yourselves,"  applied  to  them.  The  last 
thing  they  were  heard  to  play  was.  Nearer,  My  God,  to 
Thee. 

"The  wireless  operator  on  the  Carpathia  was  just  on  the 
point  of  removing  the  receivers  from  his  ears  just  after  mid- 
night on  Sunday  night,  when  he  decided  to  remain  at  his 
apparatus  a  moment  or  two  longer  to  see  if  he  could  catch 
any  '  Good  night '  calls  from  his  brother  operators  on  other 
lines.     As  he  expressed  it,  he  took  ^  one  last  listen.' 

"  He  took  up  his  receiver  and  faintly  at  first,  then  stronger, 
he  heard  the  click,  click,  zip,  zip,  of  an  appeal  for  aid.  All 
thought  of  sleep  was  then  instantly  abandoned.  He  tuned 
his  instrument  again  and  heard  the  cry  coming  stronger. 

"  This  time  he  caught  the  name  of  the  vessel,  the  Titanic, 
and  then  a  moment  afterward  came  her  position.  She  was  in 
41.46  north  latitude;  50.14  west  longitude.  She  gave  the 
*  C.  Q.  D.,'  generally  read  as  '  Come  quick.  Danger,'  and 
later,  the  '  S.  0.  S.,'  of  the  international  call  for  help.  Hastily 
flashing  a  reassuring  message  to  the  Titanic,  he  telephoned  to 


Exercises  in  Paragraph  Development       51 

the  bridge  and   at  once  electrified  the  whole  complement  of 
the  Carpathian  officers  and  crew,  to  instant  action." 

—  From  the  Cincinnati  Enquirer j  slightly  adapted. 

"  We  drifted  olf  easily  as  the  oars  were  got  out,  and  headed 
directly  away  from  the  ship.  The  crew  of  the  lifeboat  seemed 
to  me  to  be  mostly  cooks  in  white  jackets,  two  to  an  oar, 
with  a  stoker  at  the  tiller.  The  stoker  was  elected  captain. 
We  decided  to  keep  close  to  the  other  boats.  It  was  now 
about  1  A.M. ;  a  beautiful  starlight  night,  with  no  moon,  and 
so  not  very  light. 

"  The  sea  was  calm.  Just  a  gentle  heave  as  the  boat  dipped 
up  and  down  in  the  swell ;  an  ideal  night,  except  for  the  bitter 
cold,  for  any  one  who  had  to  be  out  in  the  middle  of  the 
Atlantic  in  an  open  boat.  If  ever  such  a  night  was  needed  it 
was  now,  with  hundreds  of  people,  mostly  women  and  children, 
hundreds  of  miles  from  land. 

"  As  we  rowed  away  from  the  Titanic  we  looked  back  from 
time  to  time  to  watch  her,  and  a  more  striking  spectacle  could 
not  well  be  imagined.  In  the  distance,  she  looked  an  enor- 
mous length,  her  great  bulk  outlined  in  black  against  the  starry 
sky,  every  porthole  and  saloon  blazing  with  light.  It  was 
impossible  to  think  that  anything  could  be  wrong  with  such  a 
leviathan,  were  it  not  for  that  enormous  tilt  downward  in  the 
bows,  where  the  water  was  by  now  up  to  the  lowest  row  of 
portholes. 

"  At  about  2  o'clock,  she  settled  rapidly,  then  slowly  tilted, 
every  light  going  out.  Her  machinery,  thus  loosened  from  its 
place,  fell  with  a  roar  forward.  Finally,  with  a  slanting  dive, 
she  plunged  to  her  grave  in  the  Atlantic.  Then  fell  on  our 
ears  the  most  awful  cry  that  human  ears  ever  listened  to,  the 
death  wail  of  the  many  hundreds  struggling  in  the  water." 

—  From  the  Cincinnati  Enquirer,  slightly  adapted. 

(a)  Preliminary  Outline.  —  Put  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  tele- 
graph editor  on  the  night  when  the  telegrams  begin  to  come  in, 
detailing  the  story  of  the  loss  of  the  Titanic,  as  given  above.  Prepare 
an  outline  describing  the  wreck  and  the  scenes  attendant  upon  it 


52  Effective  Paragraphing 

The  story  is  full  of  interest,  and  you  will  find  no  difficulty  in  making 
your  account  interesting. 

(6)  Testing.  —  Test  your  outline  for  unity,  coherence,  and  em- 
phasis. Change  it  if  necessary,  or  discard  it  entirely,  making  a  new 
one.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  attempting  too  many  items  in 
your  outline.  Three  or  four  will  be  all  you  can  handle  to  advantage. 
Eliminate  anything  that  seems  to  hinder  unity,  or  to  mar  the 
coherence. 

(c)  Paragraphing.  —  1.  In  deciding  upon  your  outline,  remember 
that  each  item  stands  for  one  paragraph,  or  should  do  so.  Keep  an 
eye  upon  your  paragraphing.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  use  space.  The 
details  of  this  shipwreck  filled  the  front  pages  of  the  leading  news- 
papers for  ten  days  or  more,  and  the  interest  was  intense. 

2.  After  having  thus  carefully  decided  upon  your  outline,  which 
will  indicate  the  paragraphs  you  are  to  use,  write  your  account,  devel- 
oping your  paragraphs  in  any  of  the  three  ways  described  on  page  47. 
Let  five  papers,  selected  for  variety  in  treatment,  be  read  aloud. 

(d)  Class  Criticism.  —  Let  the  class  criticize  these  five  papers  with 
special  reference  to  the  suggestions  below. 

1.  Listen  carefully  for  any  lack  of  unity. 

2.  Watch  for  any  carelessness  in  arrangement.  Such  care- 
lessness, as  you  know,  will  mar  the  coherence  of  your  story. 

3.  Listen  for  emphasis,  and  for  interest  in  all  that  is  read 
before  the  class.  How  did  each  story,  read  or  spoken,  deal 
with  these  important  points  ? 

4.  Bid  any  writer  or  speaker  attempt  too  much?  If  so, 
it  was  a  fault  against  which  each  student  had  been  warned. 

5.  How  about  the  paragraphing?  Was  each  paragraph  a 
unit  in  itself  ?  Were  the  paragraphs  too  long,  or  too  short  ? 
Were  they  logically  developed  ? 

6.  Which  paper  or  oral  effort  was  the  best,  so  far  as  the 
use  of  imagination  is  concerned  ?     How  about  originality  ? 

7.  Forgetting  now -all  imperfections  or  defects,  what  did 
you  most  admire  in  what  has  been  offered  on  this  story? 
Name  some  minor  excellences  that  caught  your  attention. 

(e)  Rival  Newspaper  Staffs.  —  Let  the  teacher  of  English  name 
three  students  who  shall  act  as  managing  editors  of  rival  newspapers, 
say  The  News,  The  Journal,  and  The  Times.     At  the  same  time  let  one 


Exercises  in  Paragraph  Development        53 

capable  student  be  named  as  representative  of  the  Associated  Press, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  gather  information  and  put  it  into  usable 
shape  for  all  three  papers.  The  managing  editors  shall  choose, 
turn  about,  from  the  members  of  the  class  until  all  are  chosen.  The 
pupils  thus  chosen  are  to  constitute  the  respective  staffs  of  the  rival 
papers,  to  be  assigned  to  duty  by  the  managing  editors.  Appoint 
an  assistant  editor ;  a  telegraph  editor,  to  handle  and  put  in  shape 
everything  in  the  way  of  news,  including  what  comes  from  the 
Associated  Press;  a  sporting  editor,  news  writers,  a  headline  editor, 
a  proof  reader,  reporters,  and  a  sub-editor  who  shall  be  responsible  for 
correct  paragraphing. 

Features.  —  Each  paper  is  to  feature  two  events,  with  three 
thousand  words  as  the  limit  for  each  event,  making  six  thou- 
sand words  as  the  limit  for  the  entire  issue.  For  the  first 
event,  each  paper  is  to  deal  with  the  sinking  of  the  Titanic^  as 
though  it  had  happened  the  night  before,  ^or  the  second  event, 
each  paper  may  choose  for  itself.  Any  important  item  of 
athletic  news  of  interest  to  the  school,  the  closing  game  of 
an  exciting  series  of  baseball,  football,  or  basket  ball;  or 
an  interscholastic  field-day  contest. 

Each  managing  editor  shall  decide  for  his  own  paper  the 
number  and  kind  of  articles  the  issue  shall  contain.  The  list 
may  include  editorials.  Associated  Press  dispatches,  cablegrams, 
telegrams,  wireless  messages,  statements  of  survivors,  or  of 
officers  or  passengers  on  other  ships,  in  case  of  the  wreck ;  and 
accounts  of  the  contest,  the  line-up,  sketches  of  the  winning 
team,  estimates  of  the  importance  of  the  game,  notes  and  com- 
ments, special  plays,  interviews,  and  whatever  else  is  found  on 
the  sporting  page  of  a  good  paper. 

There  should  be  no  objection  if  the  writers  on  athletic  events 
indulge  in  sprightly  English.  A  certain  breeziness  of  treatment 
is  to  be  expected  on  the  sporting  page. 

Time  for  Preparation.  —  Ample  time  should  be  allowed  for 
drill  in  writing  headlines,  and  for  all  distinctively  newspaper 
work.  If  the  managing  editors  can  inspire  their  respective 
staffs  to  work  on  the  project  outside  of  school  hours,  so  much 
the  better. 


54  EflFective  Paragraphing 

Publication.  —  Perhaps  the  best  method  of  publication  will  be 
to  have  the  three  issues  read  aloud  before  the  high  school.  —  In 
such  case,  choose  the  best  readers  in  the  high  school. 

Other  Methods  of  Publication.  —  If  you  have  a  printing 
department,  here  is  an  opportunity  for  it  to  demonstrate  its 
value  to  the  school.  If  not,  and  you  have  a  commercial  depart- 
ment, it  could  use  to  advantage  its  skill  in  manifolding 
copies. 

Interesting  the  Press.  —  Except  in  large  cities,  the  local  press 
might,  if  the  project  is  properly  presented,  lend  its  help. 
How  this  could  be  done  would  depend  on  circumstances  in 
each  case.  For  instance,  the  paper  might  give  half  a  page, 
arranging  your  three  "  issues ''  side  by  side.  You  could  arrange 
to  take  a  certain  number  of  copies,  or  guarantee  certain  adver- 
tising, to  pay  for  the  space.  The  "  issues  '^  should  be  published 
just  as  they  come  from  the  respective  staffs,  without  any 
retouching  by  professional  newspaper  writers. 

Judging  the  Work.  —  Let  three  practical  newspaper  men  or 
women  be  chosen  as  judges.  These  should  decide  upon  and 
announce  the  points  on  which  they  expect  to  base  their 
decision,  before  the  competing  students  begin  to  write. 

The  Eequired  Standard.^  —  Expression  in  writing  includes 
the  ability  to  write  a  paragraph  or  article  with  special  adap- 
tation to  purpose  and  class  of  readers,  such  as  a  news  account 
of  some  occurrence  within  the  immediate  experience  of  the 
class,  in  a  form  acceptable  to  the  city  editor  of  a  daily  news- 
paper of  good  standing. 

Paragraphing  in  Conversation.  —  In  reporting  conversa- 
tion, it  is  well  to  note  that  each  speech,  whether  short  or 
long,  is  to  be  paragraphed  separately.  The  following  is 
an  example  : 

I  met  him  as  I  turned  towards  the  door. 
"  Hello,  when  did  you  get  in  ?  "  I  asked. 


^  From  the  English  Syllabus^  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


Topical  Outlines  55 

"  I  am  just  in,"  lie  answered.  "  Look  here,  Jennings,  didn't 
you  receive  my  wire  from  Boston  ?  " 

"I  haven't  heard  a  word  from  you,"  I  replied.  "Not  a 
word." 

Suggestions  for  Topical  Outlines.^  —  As  a  powerful  aid 
toward  sticking  to  the  point  (unity)  in  an  orderly 
manner  (coherence)  the  use  of  the  topical  outline  should 
be  emphasized.  By  its  use  thought  is  organized  and 
made  effective.  It  should  be  employed  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  end  of  the  high  school  course.  In 
preparing  an  outline  it  is  well  to  use  a  conventional 
form.  The  following  is  a  convenient  graphic  repre- 
sentation : 

I ' . 

A 

1 . 

a ' 

b 

2 

B 

1 

a 

II 

The  Paper  Dolls  of  My  Childhood 

I.   My  first  recollection  of  paper  dolls 

A.  In  the  nursery 

B.  In  the  sewing  room 

II.   My  later  delight 

A.    When  I  could  make  dresses  for  the  dolls 

1.  To  earn  money 

2.  To  please  my  sister. 

^  The  Teaching  of  High  School  English,  State  Board,  New  Jersey. 


56  Effective  Paragraphing 


The  Ipanee  or  Ancient  Men. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Alaska.  The  Ipanee  or  Ancient  Men.  —  Look  through  the 
reindeer  pictures  in  thie  book,  and  write  a  brief  paper  on  the  rein- 
deer industry  in  Alaska,  paying  special  attention  to  the  development 
of  your  paragraphs. 

The  United  States  Government  in  1892  inaugurated  tlie  im- 
portation of  reindeer  from  Siberia  into  Alaska,  bringing  over 
in  all  1200.     These  had  increased  to  82,151  reindeer  in  1916. 

The  reindeer  are  not  given  to  the  natives.  These  serve  an 
apprenticeship  of  four  years,  receiving  a  substantial  number 
at  the  end  of  each  year.  The  apprentice  is  allowed  to  kill  his 
surplus  male  deer,  and  use  or  sell  the  meat.  He  uses  the 
skins  in  making  clothing.  He  is  encouraged  to  use  his  sled 
deer  in  carrying  mails,  freight,  and  passengers.  At  the  end 
of  his  service,  he  assumes  charge  of  his  herd,  and  must  then 
train  other  natives,  rewarding  his  apprentices  according  to  the 
regulations. 

Here  is  shown  a  group  of  original  reindeer  men,  now  leaders 
in  the  industry,  which  is  under  the  charge  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


57 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 

A  Kentucky  Horse  Show. 


A  Kentucky  Horse  Show.  —  One  class  of  animals  lias  just 
been  shown,  and  another  is  called.  Two  saddle  horses  stand 
near  the  judges,  probably  to  receive  the  blue  and  red  ribbons, 
the  former  denoting  the  finest  animal  of  its  class.  Buyers 
come  from  all  over  the  world  to  select  animals  from  the 
pedigreed  stock  here  shown. 

1.  A  Thoroughbred.  —  What  is  the  difference  between  a  thorough- 
bred and  another  animal,  so  far  as  horses  are  concerned?  Answer 
from  your  own  knowledge,  or  read  up  on  the  subject  in  the 
encyclopedia. 

2.  Ancestry.  —  Tell  how  the  Kentucky  thoroughbred  is  related  to 
the  Arabian  horses.  This  is  an  interesting  story  and  is  worth  look- 
ing up. 

3.  Life  Story  of  an  Animal  Purchased  Here.  —  Trace  the  life  of 
some  fine  animal  bought  for  the  personal  use  of  some  general,  or  of 
some  one  of  royal  blood.  Intelligent  beyond  the  ordinary,  and  loyal 
to  the  death,  such  a  horse  offers  material  for  a  romantic  story. 

4.  Your  Own   Pet  Animal.  —  Some  of  the  students  who   are  to 


58  Effective  Paragraphing 

write  on  this  picture  may  have  owned  or  may  now  possess  a  fine 
animal,  whether  pedigreed  or  not.  Tell  something  of  its  intelligence 
and  faithfulness. 

5.  Saddle  Horses.  —  What  are  the  special  qualities  a  saddler 
should  have  ?  Show  why  it  is  that  their  owners  so  often  become  at- 
tached to  them.  Relate  several  instances  of  this,  whether  historical 
or  within  your  own  knowledge. 

6.  Breaking  a  Colt.  —  Relate  your  own  experience,  or  that  of 
some  one  known  to  you. 

7.  Man's  Best  Friends.  —  Prepare  a  speech  on  the  theme,  Man's 
Two  Best  Friends,  the  Horse  and  the  Dog. 


CHAPTER  V 
EFFECTIVE  SEEING 


Imagination  is  the  eye  of  the  soul.  —  Joubert. 


Imagination  plays  an  important  part  in  all  effective 
speaking  and  writing.  Many  a  dull  passage  may  be 
brightened  by  the  use  of  what  Wordsworth  terms  the 
"inward  eye."  If  the  student  will  endeavor  to  bring 
before  his  mind^s  eye  the  scenes  which  he  wishes  to  tell 
about,  he  will  readily  learn  to  do  what  Coleridge  describes 
in  his  Day  Dreams  where  he  says, 

"  My  eyes  make  pictures  when  they  're  shut." 

The  power  of  the  mind  to  see  things  in  fancy  is  called 
visualizing.  The  ability  to  visualize  is  a  great  help  in  se- 
curing a  good  imaginative  effect,  and  in  seeing  clearly  those 
things  which  the  imagination  is  to  enliven  and  develop. 

EXERCISES  IN  VISUALIZING 

(a)  Visualize  the  continent  of  North  America.  Think  of  yourself 
at  some  high  point  where  you  can  sweep  the  continent  with  the  eye 
of  your  fancy,  better  than  any  human  instrument  yet  devised.  See 
it  all  stretching  out  under  you. 

To  the  east,  the  Appalachian  system.  To  the  west,  the 
Eocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific,  then  the  great  plains  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  To  the  north,  the  hills  that  separate 
the  rivers  of  the  Hudson  Bay  country  from  the  rivers  of  the 
United  States.  See  the  Great  Lakes  and  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence.    Far  to  the  south,  view  the  wide  alluvial  plains  and  the 

69 


60  EflFective  Seeing 

Gulf,  encircling  the  southern  border.     Last  of  all,  let  youi 
glance  sweep  over  Mexico. 

(6)  Glance  back  over  this  same  stretch  of  country,  and  view  the 
people  at  their  amusements.  How  do  they  enjoy  themselves  ?  With 
the  "  inward  eye  "  of  your  imagination,  see  and  detail  what  you  see 
on  some  great  holiday. 

(c)  Visualize  a  pretty  church  wedding.  Put  everything  else  out 
of  your  mind,  and  picture  it  as  happening  while  you  write.  Hold 
your  mind  to  it  until  you  see  it.  Make  your  account  consistent. 
Make  it  brief.  Make  it  interesting.  See  it  all  as  happening  in  some 
church  with  which  you  are  familiar,  and  which  is  worth  describing. 
Use  the  following  outline  if  you  wish. 

A  Pretty  Church  Wedding 

(1)  The  time ;  (2)  the  church  decorations ;  (3)  the  crowd 
waiting  for  the  coming  of  the  wedding  party ;  (4)  "  They  're 
coming  ! "  (5)  the  wedding  march ;  (6)  the  ceremony,  includ- 
ing a  description  of  the  bride ;    (7)  the  recessional. 

(rf)  Using  the  selection  below  as  suggestive,  picture  a  rescue  by 
the  Life  Saving  Crew  on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  during  a  storm  in  winter. 
Do  not  write  until  you  have  clearly  in  mind  what  you  intend  to  say. 
Then  write  rapidly. 

The  element  of  danger  cuts  little  figure  in  the  minds  of  the 
men.  The  excitement  of  the  wreck,  the  launching  of  the  boat, 
the  tough,  long  pull  to  the  vessel,  the  battle  with  the  seas,  the 
careful  work  in  approaching  the  wreck,  and  all  the  incidents 
in  connection,  are  life  and  action  to  them.  The  danger  is 
part  of  the  day's  work. 

—  With  the  Life-savers,  Chas.  T.  Gwynne. 

(c)  Visualize  the  voyage  of  the  Titanic.  —  See  her  from  the  time  she 
lay  at  the  busy  docks  of  Southampton,  with  eager  crowds  hurrying 
aboard.  She  has  left  the  land,  the  finest  ship  afloat ;  and  is  in  mid- 
ocean,  a  thousand  miles  from  shore.  The  air  is  touched  with  sudden 
chill.  Icebergs  are  near.  But  still  she  steams  ahead,  for  she  is  mak- 
ing a  record.  See  her  in  the  midst  of  floating  mountains  of  ice.  She 
has  struck  an  iceberg.     She  is  sinking  by  the  head. 

Shut  your  eyes  and  see  the  wreck,  the  icy  waters  of  the  North  At- 


Word  Pictures  61 

lantic  covered  with  wreckage,  and  dotted  with  men  struggling  for  life. 
Many  men  are  still  on  board  the  Titanic.  She  is  pointed  head  down 
just  ready  for  the  plunge.  Boats  and  life  rafts  are  pulling  away  from 
the  ship,  some  of  them  already  quite  a  distance  away. 

Your  imagination  will  suggest  something  in  keeping  with  such  a 
scene.     See  it  for  yourself,  and  describe  it  as  you  see  it. 

(/)  Visualize  a  glimpse  of  kingly  hospitality.  —  In  the  Odyssey, 
book  iv,  Bryant's  translation,  lines  49-380,  there  occurs  a  bit  of  word 
painting  detailing  the  visit  of  Telemachus,  son  of  Ulysses,  to  the 
palace  of  King  Menelaus  and  his  wife  Helen,  once  of  Troy.  Their 
conversation  is  a  fine  example  of  table  talk.  During  this  conversa- 
tion, the  king  tells  Telemachus  the  story  of  the  Wooden  Horse,  and 
his  own  part  and  that  of  Ulysses  in  that  dire  stratagem.  The  pas- 
sage affords  as  excellent  a  picture  of  ancient  life  and  hospitality  as 
exists  in  literature. 

Read  the  story  over  until  you  have  it  well  in  mind.  Then  picture 
it  and  tell  it.     Do  not  aUow  anything  to  hinder  the  story. 

Word  Pictures.  —  Word  pictures  are  vivid  bits  of  descrip- 
tion. The  object  or  scene  to  t)e  described  should  be 
visualized  and  its  striking  features  noted.  The  effect  of 
a  word  picture  is  greatly  enhanced  by  judicious  use  of  the 
imagination. 

EXERCISES  ON  WORD  PICTURES 

(a)  Select  any  two  or  more  of  the  following.  Picture  the  scene 
suggested,  and  when  it  is  clear  in  your  mind,  tell  about  it,  as  you  see 
it.     Aim  to  make  your  hearer  or  reader  see  it  as  you  do. 

1.  Sheep  feeding  on  the  hillside  in  the  early  morning,  or 
at  sunset.     Picture  it  as  in  summer  time. 

2.  Cattle  standing  in  the  pools  at  midday,  under  the  trees. 

3.  A  glimpse  of  a  waterfall,  showing  through  the  forest.  If 
you  have  seen  a  waterfall,  recall  it  and  describe  it.  If  not,  look  up 
a  picture  of  the  Yosemite  Falls.    Study  it,  then  tell  it  as  you  see  it. 

4.  "  On  behind ! "  The  streets  are  covered  with  snow. 
Boys  and  girls  are  out  with  their  sleds.  They  are  catching  on 
behind  wagons  and  sleighs,  and  stealing  rides.  See  the  chil- 
dren in  your  mind's  eye,  then  tell  the  story  as  you  see  it. 


62 


EfiFective  Seeing 


(b)  Try  to  paint  a  word  picture  of  any  two  of  the  following  scenea 

1.  Picture  a  roaxi,  winding  it8  way  by  the  side  of  a  river, 
seen  now  and  then  through  the  trees. 

2.  Picture  the  scene  on  Christmas  eve,  with  the  family 
gathered  about  the  Christmas  tree.     Tell  about  it. 

3.  There  has  been  an  accident  at  a  crowded  comer  of  your 
city.  The  "  Red  Cross  "  ambulance  comes  at  a  gallop,  and  the 
police  patrol  auto  swings  around  the  corner.  Picture  it,  then 
describe  it. 

4.  You  are  passing  the  doors  of  an  engine  house  of  the 
city  fire  department,  when  the  alarm  rings.  The  doors  fly 
open,  and  the  firemen  are  off  to  the  scene  of  the  fire.  See  it 
mentally,  then  tell  it. 

5.  You  are  out  in  a  blinding  snowstorm.  You  see  a  little 
newsboy  on  the  corner,  trying  to  shelter  himself  from  the 
blizzard.     Picture  him. 


Tomb  of  the  "  Black  Prince",  Canterbury  .Cathedral. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  63 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  Black  Prince.  —  Refer  to  Charles  Dickens'  Child* s  History  of 
England,  chapter  xviii,  or  any  other  history  of  England,  and  tell 
the  story  of  this  favorite  hero  of  the  English  people. 

Edward,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III  of  England,  was  called 
the  Black  Prince  from  the  color  of  his  armor.  He  led  the 
most  gallant  division  of  the  English  forces  in  the  battle  of 
Crecy,  1346.  Ten  years  later  he  won  .fhe  battle  of  Poitiers 
against  overwhelming  odds,  and  captured  the  French  king, 
John  II.  His  tomb  in  Canterbury  Cathedral  is  shown  at  the 
right  in  the  picture  on  page  62. 

Important  Cautions.  —  The  permanent  editorial  com- 
mittee should  note  the  followmg  items^  and  add  them  to 
the  lists  on  previous  pages. 

XVII.  Make  careful  inquiry  into  the  use  of  the  period  at 
the  end  of  sentences  in  continuous  composition,  on  the  part  of 
all  students  of  the  English  class  in  their  daily  written  exercises. 

Make  a  list  of  such  pupils  as  are  careless  in  this  regard. 
Watch  their  daily  work  with  increasing  care.  Students  who 
in  speaking  begin  too  many  of  their  sentences  with  and,  or 
still  worse,  with  and-dh,  are  most  likely  to  have  no  regard  for 
sentence-forming.  They  multiply  the  use  of  tlve  comma,  using 
it  even  at  the  end  of  sentences.  In  speaking,  this  is  called  the 
running-on  fault.    In  writing,  it  is  referred  to  as  the  comma  fault. 

In  general,  it  is  advisable  that  no  pupil  should  be  promoted 
to  second  year  who  still  has  the  comma  fault,  that  is,  the  so- 
called  "  running-on  "  fault. 

XVIII.  Be  careful  to  require  the  use  of  the  comma  in  at 
least  such  cases  as  the  following. 

(a)  To  set  off  words  of  address  : 

Charles,  where  are  you  going?  Mr.  Chairman,  I  second 
the  motion. 


1  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  and  the 
Requirements  in  Form,  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of  English. 


64  EflFective  Seeing 

(6)  To  set  off  a  geographical  name  explaining  a  preceding 
name : 

Ottawa,  Canada;  Washington,  District  of  Columbia; 
Columbia,  S.  C. 

(c)  To  set  off  an  appositive  : 

Washington,  the  first  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
a  native  of  Virginia. 

(d)  To  separate  the  words  of  a  series : 
That  fellow  can  not  read,  write,  or  figure. 

XIX.  Let  the  editorial  committee  guard  against  the  use  of 
dangling  participles.  Where  a  participle  is  used  without  the 
noun  which  it  should  modify,  it  is  called  a  dangling  participle. 
Such  use  tends  to  produce  confusion.  Note  the  following 
instances. 

1.  Before  using  machinery,  shoes  were  made  by  hand. 
(Can  shoes  use  machinery  ?) 

2  After  taking  our  seats,  the  secretary  read  the  minutes  of 
the  previous  meeting.  (How  could  the  secretary  take  our 
seats  ?) 

3.  While  standing  on  our  front  porch,  the  procession 
marched  by.  (Could  the  procession  stand  on  the  porch  and 
march  hy^  at  one  and  the  same  time  ?) 

Spelling  List.  —  Let  the  editorial  committee^  after  con- 
sulting with  the  instructor  in  English,  prepare  a  list  of 
one  hundred  words  that  are  habitually  misspelled  by  the 
class,  or  by  members  of  the  class.  This  list  is  to  he  copied 
into  the  notebooks.,  and  special  drill  is  to  be  given  on  this 
list.     It  may  include  words  already  noted. 


CHAPTER  VI 
GETTING  EFFECTIVE  MATERIAL 


Invention  is  the  talent  of  youth,  as  judgment  is  of  age. 

—  Swift. 


Invention.  — Invention  is  that  part  of  the  study  of 
rhetoric  and  composition  which  tries  to  answer  the  ques- 
tion, "  What  shall  I  say  ?  " 

The  International  Dictionary  defines  invention  as  the 
exercise  of  the  imagination  in  selecting  a  theme,  or  more 
commonly  in  contriving  the  arrangement  of  a  piece,  or  the 
method  of  presenting  the  parts  of  a  composition. 

While  you  may  sometimes  be  able  to  express  yourself 
in  a  satisfactory  manner  without  effort  and  without  much 
preparation,  yet  it  is  not  wise  to  rely  upon  what  is  termed 
the  spur  of  the  moment.  Nothing  can  take  the  place  of 
preparation. 

Collecting  Materials.  —  There  is  a  right  way  and  there 
is  a  wrong  way  of  beginning  to  write.  To  sit  pen  in 
hand,  cudgeling  your  brain  for  what  to  write  next,  is  not 
the  right  way.  What  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  says  of  the  art 
of  painting  applies  with  equal  force  to  writing.     He  says  : 

"A  great  part  of  every  man's  life  must  be  employed  in 
collecting  materials.  Invention  is  little  more  than  a  new  com- 
bination of  those  images  which  have  been  previously  gathered 
and  deposited  in  the  memory.  Nothing  can  be  made  of  noth- 
ing. He  who  has  laid  up  no  materials  ca,n  produce  no 
combination.'' 

65 


66 


EfiFective  Material 


Dr.  Johnson  in  the  Anteroom  of  Lord  Chesterfield. —  Ward. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.  —  Catch  the  spirit  of  this  story  as  told  by 
the  picture,  and  tell  it  as  you  see  it.  A  summary  of  your  material  is 
given  below. 

Lord  Chesterfield,  a  wealthy  patron  of  literature,  encouraged 
Samuel  Johnson  to  expect  his  assistance  when  Johnson  under- 
took the  colossal  task  of  writing  a  "  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language."  Johnson  waited  in  vain  for  the  expected  aid. 
For  seven  years  he  struggled  unassisted.  Then  when  the 
work  was  about  to  appear,  Chesterfield  wrote  a  flattering 
notice  of  the  Dictionary,  willing  enough  now  to  be  known  as  its 
patron.  Johnson  refused  his  patronage  in  what  is  rightly  con- 
sidered one  of  the  great  letters  of  all  literature.  The  picture 
by  Ward  shows  the  wrathful  Doctor,  staff  in  hand,  just  about 
reaching  the  limit  of  his  patience. 

The  Notebook.  —  A  notebook  is  indispensable.  Thoughts 
will  come  to  you  to-day  which  may  never  come  to  you 
again.     These  should  be  saved.     The  plan  or  scheme  of  a 


The  Scrapbook  67 

paragraph  or  theme,  the  plot  or  outline  of  a  sketch  or  of  a 
story,  the  suggestion  of  an  interesting  article,  will  flash 
upon  your  mind,  and  this,  if  not  instantly  seized  and 
written  down,  may,  and  most  probably  will,  flash  away 
from  you  and  be  lost. 

Write  it  down.  An  apt  expression  in  your  own  peculiar 
phrase,  or  a  bright  saying  of  some  one  else,  if  not  written 
down  at  once,  is  often  lost.  Some  sentence  or  quotation, 
some  excellent  paragraph,  or  some  article  that  puts  the 
case  better  than  it  may  ever  be  put  again,  is  either  saved 
now  or  perhaps  lost  forever.     Put  such  things  down. 

The  Scrapbook.  —  You  should  own  a  scrapbook.  Not  a 
large  one  of  the  old-fashioned  kind,  but  one  that  you  can 
carry  with  you.  The  same  memorandum  may  serve  both 
as  notebook  and  scrapbook.  Clip  whatever  impresses  you 
at  the  time,  but  do  not  paste  all  your  clippings  into  your 
scrapbook.  Keep  them  awhile  in  an  envelope  or  loose  in 
your  scrapbook,  sort  them  over  from  time  to  time,  and 
paste  in  only  those  which  seem  worth  while. 

Use  library  paste,  but  not  too  much  of  it.  Touch 
the  top  of  the  clipping  with  the  paste.  This  facilitates 
the  drying  of  the  clipping  and  enables  you  to  discard  the 
clipping  when  you  are  through  with  it.  Some  of  the  clip- 
pings you  may  desire  to  keep  permanently. 

Where  space  is  important,  five-  or  six-column  articles 
may,  by  folding  them  back,  be  included  on  a  single 
page  of  a  small  memorandum  book.  In  case  of  shorter 
clippings,  several  may  be  pasted  on  a  page,  being  folded 
back  when  not  in  use,  to  be  unfolded  as  occasion  may 
require. 

What  to  Keep.  —  In  this  way  fugitive  poems,  good 
stories  and  anecdotes,  bits  of  description,  well  written 
accounts  of  scenes  and  events,  quotations  from  favorite 
authors,  important  speeches  and  addresses,  and  informa- 


68  Effective  Material 

tion  of.  interest  may  be  saved.  Your  scrapbook  will 
prove  a  treasure-house  of  suggestion  and  illustration. 

Preserve  Your  Own  Work.  —  If  you  are  writing  on 
some  topic,  preserve  every  scrap  of  your  writing  bearing 
in  any  way  upon  it.  A  page  of  matter  otherwise  useless, 
may  contain  one  excellent  sentence,  or  one  good  usable 
paragraph.  Until  the  article  you  are  at  work  on  is  fin- 
ished, all  you  attempt  on  that  theme  should  be  kept. 

Your  own  thought  is  your  best  source  of  material.  Ex- 
perience, observation,  and  imagination  are  your  servants 
and  may  be  trained  to  obey  the  call  of  your  mind.  As 
a  general  thing,  those  thoughts  that  come  unbidden  when 
the  subject  is  first  presented  to  you  are  valuable.  Set 
such  thoughts  down,  but  not  before  the  mind  has  had 
time  to  develop  as  fully  as  possible  the  manner  in  which 
you  are  to  handle  the  theme. 

Be  Resolute.  —  You  must  learn  to  acquire  a  certain 
resoluteness  of  thought,  refusing  to  be  dismayed  if  at 
first  you  may  seem  to  have  no  ideas  at  all  upon  the  pro- 
posed theme.  Your  mind  will  do  what  you  compel  it  to 
do,  and  will  suggest  something  ere  long,  if  held  to  the 
task. 

When  Thoughts  Come.  —  As  suggestions  present  them- 
selves, jot  them  down  on  paper.  As  soon  as  possible, 
make  an  outline  by  the  card  plan,  as  this  admits  of  a 
greater  flexibility  in  the  arrangement  of  the  items. 

The  Public  Library.  —  Learn  to  take  advantage  of  what 
is  offered  by  the  public  library.  Use  the  dictionaries, 
encyclopedias,  works  of  reference,  and  helps  of  all  kinds. 
The  trained  attendants  are  at  your  service  and  glad  to 
be  of  use.  Yet  the  sooner  you  learn  to  find  your  own 
way  the  better. 

Important  Note. —  One  caution  is  to  be  observed. 
Do  not  take  the  material  found  in  the  public  library  or 


The  Card  Catalogue  69 

elsewhere,  no  matter  how  well  it  may  be  adapted  to  your 
needs,  and  use  it  bodily.  This  would  effectually  kill 
invention.  W|iat  you  make  your  own  is  valuable.  Noth- 
ing else  is. 

The  Card  Catalogue.  —  First  of  all,  learn  to  use  the  card 
catalogue.  Each  book  in  the  library  is  listed  at  least 
*:hree  times  for  convenience  in  finding,  its  chief  listing 
being  under  the  head  of  its  author.  Take  for  instance, 
Bryce's  American  Commonwealth.  This  is  listed  under 
"^"  for  Bryce,  the  author's  name;  then  under  "^"  for 
American  Commonwealth^  The.,  its  title ;  and  finally,  under 
''  CT"  for  Z7.  aS'.  Political  History  and  Affairs,  the  general 
subject  under  which  it  falls. 

As  you  search  through  the  librar}^  you  read  along 
until  you  find  what  J^ou  seek,  or  what  promises  to  be  of 
help  to  you.  Or  else  you  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  topic  you  are  in  search  of  is  not  discussed  in  any  of 
the  books  of  the  library.  Right  here,  the  attendants 
may  help  you.  They  may  suggest  something  you  had 
not  thought  of  in  connection  with  your  topic,  and  this 
may  help  you  out. 

In  thus  requiring  attention  from  the  attendants  of  the 
library,  do  not  forget  to  exercise  unfailing  courtesy 
towards  them.     This  is  their  due. 

Magazine  and  Periodical  Literature.  —  But  suppose  all 
efforts  prove  in  vain.  Card  index  and  attendants  fail 
to  give  what  you  want.  There  is  still  another  field, 
that  of  periodical  arid  magazine  literature.  Ask  the 
attendants  for  Poole's  Index,  or  the  Header  s  Guide,  or 
any  one  of  the  many  publications  for  finding  material  in 
periodicals. 

These  indexes  are  arranged  alphabetically,  so  that  by 
turning  to  the  heading  sought,  you  find  everything  that 
has  been  written  in  the  periodical  press. 


70 


Effective  Material 


Stairway,  Boston  Public  Library. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Boston  Public  Library.  —  This  shows  a  stairway  of  the  Boston 
Public  Library.  This  library  divides  honors  with  the  Library 
of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C,  for  the  beauty  of  its  archi- 
tecture and  its  mural  decorations,  as  well  as  for  its  books. 

1.  A  Visit  to  the  Boston  Library.  —  If  you  live  near  enough,  plan  a 
v^isit  to  the  library.  Arrange  for  an  opportunity  to  study  its  archi- 
tecture, its  wall  paintings,  and  its  resources  in  literature  and  art. 


Exercises  in  Getting  Material  71 

2.  If  you  are  in  easy  reach  of  a  good  public  library,  let  the  English 
class  visit  this  library,  arranging  to  have  a  demonstration  of  how  to 
use  it. 

It  should  be  part  of  your  plan  in  making  a  visit  to  any  city  of  im- 
portance, to  visit  and  study  the  public  library  and  its  facilities. 

Beferences  for  an  Article  on  the  Boston  Library.  —  The  follow- 
ing books* and  magazines  may  be  consulted.  Granger's  "Life 
of  Charles  McKim,''  on  its  architecture ;  King's  "  American 
Mural  Paintings,"  on  its  mural  paintings  and  decorations. 

"  The  Grand  Doors  of  the  Boston  Library,"  in  the  Outlook, 
No.  78,  pp.  586-7  ;  Nov.,  1904 ;  same  article,  Scribnei'^s,  No. 
36,  pp.  765-8,  Dec,  1904 ;  same,  International  Studio,  No.  24, 
pp.  32-6,  Dec,  1904. 

"  Eecent  Mural  Decorations  at  Boston,"  International  Studio, 
No.  17,  pp.  79-81,  July,  1902. 

"  Sargent's  Nevr  Wall  Paintings,"  Scribner's,  No.  34,  pp. 
764-8,  Dec,  1903. 

EXERCISES  IN  GETTING  MATERIAL 
(a)  Invention.  ^  —  Try  one  or  more  of  the  following. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  some  important  event  connected  with 
the  history  of  your  home  town.  Make  it  short  and  interesting. 
If  told  orally,  give  it  in  four  minutes.  If  written,  use  four 
hundred  words. 

2.  Think  out  a  little  story  of  adventure  whose  setting 
shall  be  in  the  Arctic  regions.  Let  it  be  in  one  scene  and  tell 
of  but  one  happening. 

3.  Think  out  a  detective  story  in  which  your  hero,  while 
taking  a  snapshot  and  later  developing  it,  finds  that  he  has 
"  snapped  "  the  secret  of  a  notable  crime,  which  is  just  then 
baffling  the  regular  detective  force.  Give  it  a  taking  title. 
Make  it  interesting  and  short.  If  written,  use  eight  hundred 
words.  If  oral,  use  eight  minutes.  Or  you  may  make  it 
shorter,  if  you  so  desire. 


1  By  invention  is  meant,  so  far  as  this  exercise  is  concerned,  the  finding 
of  usable  material  for  peaking  and  writing. 


n  Efifective  Material 

4.  Choose  a  committee  of  three  or  four  boys  to  ascertain 
and  report  the  facts  about  the  policeman's  dog,  if  there  is  one 
in  your  city.  Learn  (a)  what  are  his  duties,  self-appointed 
or  assigned ;  (6)  how  he  came  to  attach  himself  to  the  police 
department ;  and  (c)  something  of  his  actual  history. 

5.  Let  three  or  four  girls  get  at  the  facts,  and  take  steps 
to  provide  for  giving  some  one  or  more  worthy  families  a  sub- 
stantial  Thanksgiving  dinner.  Here  is  an  opportunity  for 
effective  speech.  Let  each  girl  make  her  appeal  to  some  one 
or  more  classes  of  the  high  school.  Be  careful  not  to  wound 
the  feelings  of  those  whom  you  seek  to  aid. 

(b)  Getting  Material.  —  Choose  one  or  more  of  the  following  exer- 
cises, or  substitute  one  of  your  own. 

1.  Read  the  story  of  Ali  Cogia  in  the  Arabian  Nights, 
where  the  Caliph  overhears  the  children  playing  in  the  moon- 
light and  conducting  a  mimic  trial,  in  which  one  of  the  boys 
pronounces  a  judgment  which  the  Caliph  sees  is  the  only 
decision  possible  in  the  case  he  is  to  try  the  next  day.  Shape 
the  story  as  you  please.     Make  it  modern,  if  you  choose. 

2.  Eead  the  story  of  George  Sand's  Fanchon  the  Cricket, 
and  put  it  into  scenario  form,  for  a  photo-drama  play. 

In  this  sense,  a  scenario  is  a  sketch  of  the  plot  or  main 
incidents  of  a  moving-picture  play.  Each  scene  is  described  in 
twenty  words  or  less  ;  and  there  may  be  any  number  of  scenes. 

3.  Give  orally  the  account  of  How  they  hunted  the  buffalo, 
as  told  in  Parkman's  Calif omia  and  the  Oregon  Trail. 

4.  Outline  Robert  Louis  Stevenson's  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr. 
Hyde  in  not  more  than  one  thousand  words,  or  the  equivalent, 
a  ten-minute  talk. 

5.  Let  a  group  of  the  best  story-tellers  in  the  class  study 
and  reproduce  in  scenario  form  for  a  moving-picture  play,  de 
Maupassant's  short-story.  The  Necklace.  Refer  to  The  Satur- 
day Evening  Post  for  an  exposition  of  the  moving-picture 
scenario.  The  attendants  at  the  library  will  have  no  difficulty 
in  finding  this  for  you.  Use  not  more  than  from  twenty-two 
to  twenty-five  scenes. 


Exercises  in  Getting  Material  73 

6.  Make  a  scenario  for  the  "movies"  of  Oliver  Gold- 
smith's play,  She  Stoops  to  Conquer. 

7.  Tell  orally  Eudyard  Kipling's  story  of  An  Unsavory 
Interlude,  found  in  Stalky  &  Co.  Omit  the  schoolboy  slang, 
or  use  as  little  as  possible.     Give  it  in  good  colloquial  English. 

8.  Tell  the  story  of  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  in  not  more 
than  twenty-five  scenes,  each  told  in  not  more  than  twenty 
words.  You  may  give  it  as  a  scenario.  Put  it  on  the  black- 
board for  class  criticism.     Kewrite  it. 

(c)  Refer  to  Hawthorne's  Tanglewood  Tales  and  read  carefully  one 
of  the  following  stories.  Make  a  memorandum  of  the  points  that 
strike  you  in  the  story.  Do  not  attempt  to  tell  it  until  you  have  in 
mind  a  plan  or  simple  outline  of  the  story,  so  as  to  bring  out  clearly 
what  you  have  in  mind  to  tell. 

(1)  The  Minotaur.  (2)  The  Dragon's  Teeth.  (3)  The 
Pomegranate  Seeds.     (4)  The  Golden  Fleece. 

Theseus  and  the  Minotaur.  —  The  hero,  Theseus,  son  of  a 
great  king  of  Athens,  goes  to  seek  his  father  whom  he  had 
never  known.  After  many  an  adventure,  he  takes  his  place 
at  his  father's  side.  On  a  day  when  seven  youths  and  seven 
maidens  mu-st  be  drawn  by  lot  to  be  sent  from  Athens  to 
Minos,  king  of  Crete,  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur,  The- 
seus offers  himself  as  one  of  these  seven  youths,  proposing  to 
seek  and  slay  the  Minotaur. 

Arrived  at  Crete,  his  noble  bearing  wins  the  interest  and 
pity  of  Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos.  Appealing  to  her  father 
in  vain,  she  goes  with  Theseus  to  the  Labyrinth,  where  dwells 
the  Minotaur.  She  opens  a  secret  door  and  enters  with  The- 
seus. As  he  turns  to  seek  the  Minotaur,  she  warns  him  of 
the  inscrutable  Labyrinth,  and  puts  into  his  hand  one  end  of 
a  silken  thread,  the  other  end  of  which  she  will  hold  until  his 
return,  thus  guiding  him  through  the  maze. 

With  the  silken  thread  in  his  left  hand  and  his  gold-hilted 
sword  in  his  right  hand,  he  seeks  the  Minotaur,  attacks,  and 
after  dire  conflict,  slays  him.  Guided  by  the  clew,  he  retraces 
his  steps  to  find  Ariadne  awaiting  his  coming.     (208) 


74  Effective  Material 

(d)  Refer  to  Mabie's  Norse  Stories  and  select  one  of  the  stories 
from  the  list  below.  Make  your  outline  mentally  or  in  writing,  and 
tell  your  story  in  your  own  way. 

(1)  Odin's  Search  for  Wisdom.  (2)  The  Making  of  Thor's 
Hammer.  (3)  The  Apples  of  Idun.  (4)  Thor  Goes  Fishing. 
(5)  How  Thor  Fought  the  Giant  Hhrungner. 

Odin's  Search  for  Wisdom.  —  In  the  old  Norse  days  the  giants 
were  both  older  and  wiser  than  the  gods.  After  a  time  the 
gods  became  wiser  than  the  giants,  or  they  would  have  ceased 
to  be  gods.  Odin  in  his  thirst  for  wisdom  came  to  a  deep 
well  whose  keeper  was  Mimer,  or  Memory.  For  a  draft  of 
this  clear  water  Odin  paid  the  price,  and  gave  one  of  his  eyes. 
Even  the  gods  could  not  be  wise  without  struggle  and  sacrifice. 

Odin  became  wise,  but  ever  yearned  for  greater  wisdom. 
At  last  he  journeys  in  disguise  to  Vaftthrudner,  the  wisest  of 
the  giants.  On  pain  of  death  if  he  should  fail,  Odin  answers 
all  the  questions  the  giant  propounds.  Then  drawing  from 
the  giant  all  the  secrets  of  the  future,  he  finally  vanquishes 
him  with  a  question  the  answer  to  which  none  but  Odin  him- 
self could  know.  "  I  have  brought  my  doom  upon  myself," 
said  the  giant,  "  for  in  my  ignorance,  I  have  contended  with 
wisdom  itself."     (164) 

(e)  Using  the  Library.  —  Consult  the  public  library  for  a  good 
adventure  in  aviation  by  a  venturesome  aviator.  Tell  it  orally  in 
your  own  words.  After  some  record  flight,  you  may  find  a  good 
account  in  the  newspapers.     See  also  Lewis's  Trail  of  the  Hawk. 

(/)   Vocational  Guidance.  —  Try  one  or  both  of  the  following. 

1.  Special  Exercise  in  English  for  Manual  Training  Stu- 
dents.—  Let  a  subject  connected  with  the  practical  work  of 
the  manual  training  department,*  for  instance.  The  Use  of 
th£  Engine  Lathe,  be  assigned  a  day  or  two  beforehand.  Let 
a  group  of  students,  one  of  them  selected  as  spokesman,  study 


1  For  an  excellent  discussion  of  this  sort  of  English  work,  see 
in  the  English  Journal,  September,  1913,  an  article  by  Miss  May 
McKitrick,  East  Technical  High  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Exercises  in  Getting  Material  75 

the  lathe  so  as  to  explain  its  use,  its  construction,  how  it 
works,  precautions  to  be  taken,  what  to  do  in  case  of  accident 
to  the  machine,  etc.  Let  working  drawings  be  put  on  the 
blackboard,  unless  enough  blue  prints  have  been  provided  for 
distribution  among  the  class. 

The  spokesman  considers  himself  as  foreman  of  the  shop, 
and  some  three  or  four  students  from  the  manual  training 
department  as  new  workmen,  who  have  never  seen  the  lathe. 
His  problem  is  so  to  present  the  subject  as  to  give  them  a 
working  knowledge  of  it. 

If  he  can  illustrate  his  points  by  the  actual  use  of  the  lathe, 
so  much  the  better.  The  class  is  divided  into  sections,  —  one 
to  watch  for  wn%,  one  for  clearness,  another  for  mechanical 
accuracy,  and  still  another  for  paragraph  structure. 

2.  Salesmanship.  —  One  of  the  students  who  inclines  to 
salesmanship  may  select  some  manual  training  student  of 
ability  to  represent  the  possible  buyer,  and  after  rehearsing 
the  scene,  go  through  the  steps  of  a  successful  presentation  of 
the  lathe,  and  sell  it. 

(g)  Oral  Work,  Impromptu.  —  Speak  without  previous  preparation 
on  one  of  the  following  subjects. 

1.  Discuss  orally  your  favorite  cartoonist,  and  describe  one 
of  his  cartoons.     Two  minutes. 

2.  State  orally  how  high  school  manuscript  should  be  pre- 
pared.    Two  or  three  minutes. 

3.  Give  orally  a  favorite  recipe  for  making  candy. 

4.  Give  orally  some  reasons  why  you  think  that  pupils  in 
high  school  should  speak  and  write  good  English.     Two  minutes. 

5.  Tell  orally  how  you  would  direct  a  stranger  standing  at 
the  railroad  station  to  find  the  room  you  now  recite  in,  at  the 
high  school.     Two  minutes. 

6.  Give  a  three-minute  talk,  using  this  as  your  topic  sen- 
tence :  I  think  that  a  proper  courtesy  on  the  part  of  the  employees 
of  a  store  is  one  of  its  strongest  advertising  features. 

(h)  Dictating  a  Letter.  —  Try  one  of  these  exercises  in  dictation. 


76  Eflfective  Material 

1.  Let  the  student  be  handed  a  business  letter  dealing 
with  but  one  point.  After  glancing  at  its  contents  let  him 
dictate  the  reply  thereto,  one  of  the  class  writing  on  the  black- 
board the  letter  thus  dictated.  Before  the  class  criticizes 
this  letter,  the  student  dictating  it  is  to  have  one  minute  to 
look  it  over,  and  make  any  changes  in  matter,  punctuation, 
spelling,  etc.,  that  he  may  desire. 

2.  Dictate  a  reply  to  an  advertisement  for  "  Help  Wanted." 
The  advertisement  which  is  to  be  answered  is  to  be  written 
neatly  on  the  board.  As  the  student  dictates  his  reply, 
another  member  of  the  class  will  write  it  on  the  blackboard. 

3.  Dictate  a  letter,  using  this  as  your  topic  sentence :  / 
herewith  return  at  your  expense  the  article  yon  sent  me. 

(i)  Oral  Report. — Make  a  short  oral  report  on  one  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects. 

1.  Look  up  your  facts  and  report  orally  on  the  relative 
advantages  of  the  Parcel  Post  or  of  some  Express  Company, 
in  sending  a  package  of  twenty  pounds  from  your  city  to  a 
point  (a)  fifty  miles,  (b)  three  hundred  miles,  and  (c)  one 
thousand  miles  distant. 

2.  Read  up  on  the  topic  and  report  orally  on  How  and 
where  a  Ten  Cent  Store  buys  its  goods. 

3.  Ascertain  your  facts  and  report  orally  on  How  some 
high  school  pupils  use  their  spare  time  to  advantage. 

(j)  Outline  Material.  —  Collect  the  material  presented  in  this 
chapter,  outline  it,  and  be  prepared  to  recite  from  this  outline. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

St.  Louis  of  France  in  Palestine.  —  Study  the  picture,  put  your 
own  interpretation  upon  it,  and  tell  some  story  of  chivalric  times 
which  will  be  worthy  of  this  scene. 

This  picture  by  A.  Cabanel  is  in  the  Pantheon  at  Paris. 
The  artist  has  embodied  the  spirit  of  chivalry  in  the  bearing 
of  this  true  knight.     He  looks  a  king.     The  days  of  chivalry 


Important  Cautions 


77 


St.  Louis  of  France  in  Palestine. 


have  gone,  but  the  spirit  of  chivalry  is  a  heritage  left  us  from 
those  days,  and  it  will  never  die. 

High  Chivalry  in  a  Humble  Soul.  —  Tell  some  deed  of  devotion  in 
which  some  plain  everyday  man  or  woman  does  some  really  chivalric 
thing.  Do  not  be  in  too  great  haste  to  write.  Think  interest  and 
beauty  into  your  tale,  and  tell  it. 

Important  Cautions.  —It  will  be  well  for  the  editorial  com- 

mittee,  after  careful  consultation  with  the  English  instruc- 
tor, to  note  the  following  suggestions,  relating  to  spelling. 

XX.  Request  from  one  of  the  large  business  houses  of  your 
city  or  community  a  list  of  commonly  misspelled  words,^  either 


1  Suggested  by  the  Department  of  Public  Instraction,  State  of  New 
Jersey,  in  The  Teaching  of  High  School  English,  1914. 


78  Effective  Material 

from  their  own  office  experiences,  or  from  the  letters  of  corr^ 
spondents.  Such  words  are  to  be  added  to  the  working  vocabu- 
lary of  the  class,  and  should  be  listed  in  the  English  notebooks. 
XXI.  Call  attention  to  the  following  items,^  and  lay  careful 
stress  on  drill  on  such  words  as  are  referred  to. 

1.  Doubling  final  consonants  before  a  suffix  beginning  with 
a  vowel,  in  words  ending  in  a  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  if  the  word  is  a  monosyllable  or  is  accented  on  the  last 
syllable. 

2.  Dropping  unaccented  e  in  such  cases. 

3.  Plural  of  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant. 

4.  Third  singular  indicative  of  words  ending  in  y  preceded 
by  a  consonant. 


Photograph  by  Frank  C.  Sage. 

Crossing  the  Line  in  the  4401 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Crossing  the  Line.  —  Tell  the  story  of  an  exciting  race,  or  describe 
the  one  here  shown. 


1  From  Requirements  in  Fornix  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  79 

Such  a  race  quickens  the  pulse  of  every  lover  of  athletics. 
Each  fellow  is  putting  his  every  ounce  of  muscle  and  sinew 
into  the  effort. 

How  about  the  Loser?  —  Not  every  fellow  can  win.  What  does  the 
l6ser  get?  He  may  get  experience  for  another  race.  Write  a  story, 
showing  how  the  fellow  who  lost  so  studied  his  losing  as  to  snatch 
victory  out  of  defeat  the  next  time. 


EXERCISES  IN  SPELLING 

(a)  Try  a  written  spelling  match.  —  Take  certain  lists  from  the 
notebook  and  give  the  class  several  days  for  study.  Choose  sides, 
and  give  out  fifty  to  one  hundred  words  to  be  written  by  all  the 
pupils  of  the  class.  Let  the  captain  of  each  side  name  one,  these  two 
to  name  a  third  student,  and  these  three  to  check  the  results.  The 
student  named  by  one  captain  will  check  the  papers  of  the  other  side, 
and  vice  versa.  The  third  student  selected  will  look  over  all  papers, 
and  place  the  final  marks.  Average  the  two  sides,  and  declare  the 
result.  A  series  of  three  matches  may  thus  be  made,  the  best  two 
out  of  three  to  win. 

(&)  An  old-fashioned  spelling  match.  —  Announce  certain  lists  to 
be  studied,  as  found  in  the  English  notebook.  Choose  sides.  Let  all 
pupils  stand.  Let  some  teacher,  or  some  clear-voiced  student  from 
another  class,  give  out  the  words  to  be  spelled,  first  to  one  side, 
then  to  the  other.  When  a  word  is  missed  by  one  side,  pass  it  to 
the  pupil  next  in  order  on  the  other  side.  Pupils  who  miss  must  sit 
down. 

Give  out  the  whole  set,  but  not  necessarily  in  the  order  in  which 
they  come  in  the  list.  If  the  time  is  limited,  for  instance  to  a 
period  of  forty  or  forty-five  minutes,  stop  two  minutes  before  the 
last  bell  rings,  but  see  that  each  side  has  had  the  same  number  of 
students  called  on  to  spell.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  time  limit  of 
ten  seconds  in  which  to  spell  his  word.  If  he  fails  to  do  so  within 
that  time,  let  it  count  a  miss  for  his  side.  When  a  contestant  spells 
a  word,  let  that  spelling  stand  as  right  or  wrong.  After  the  word  is 
spelled  in  full,  allow  no  changes  in  spelling. 

The  number  of  pupils  left  standing  at  the  close  of  the  match  is  to 
decide  which  side  is  winner.  If  it  is  a  tie,  do  not  give  out  any  addi- 
tional words,  but  let  it  go  as  a  tie. 


80  EflFective  Material 

Let  a  referee  be  chosen  by  the  two  captains.  The  decision  of  the 
referee  is  to  be  respected  with  regard  to  all  disputes  arising  during  the 
spelling  match.  For  instance,  if  a  contestant  claims  not  to  under- 
stand the  word  given  out,  the  referee  may  pronounce  it.  The  con- 
testant must  then  spell  the  word. 

(c)  At  the  blackboard.  —  Send  eight  or  ten  pupils  to  the  black- 
board. Give  out  ten  words.  Any  pupil  who  spells  the  set  of  ten 
words  correctly  will  take  his  seat.  Pupils  who  fail  in  one  or  more 
words  will  remain  at  the  board  until  one  complete  set  has  been  cor- 
rectly spelled.     Select  the  words  from  the  lists  in  the  notebook. 

Suggestion  as  to  Conferences.  —  It  is  often  worth  while 
for  the  instructor  in  English  to  arrange  individual  confer- 
ences with  pupils  who  have  special  difficulties  :  punctua- 
tion, with  one ;  spelling,  with  another ;  how  to  take 
hold  in  writing  or  in  preparing  to  speak,  with  a  third. 
These  conferences  will  prove  helpful  in  promoting  a  better 
mutual  understanding.! 


1  Provision  should  be  made  for  conference  between  the  teacher  and 
each  individual  pupil.  —  From  the  Report  of  the  National  Joint  Committer 
on  the  Beorganization  of  High  School  English. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  MATERIAL 


Method,  will  teach  you  to  win.  —  Goethb. 


An  Effective  Plan.  —  In  attempting  to  speak  or  write  on 
the  exercises  thus  far  given,  you  have  perhaps  found  your- 
self perplexed  to  know  just  how  to  express  what  you  have 
to  say.  Your  mind  may  have  suggested  abundant  ma- 
terial, but  how  are  you  to  use  it  most  effectively  ? 

Barrett  Wendell,  a  writer  on  rhetoric,  makes  a  valuable 
suggestion.  He  says  that  any  story  must  naturally  fall 
into  parts,  and  then  asks,  What  shall  those  parts  be  ?  In 
what  order  shall  they  be  arranged  ? 

The  simplest  way  to  answer  these  questions,  says  Wen- 
dell, is  to  take  slips  of  paper,  or  blank  cards  if  you  can 
get  them,  and  write  down  the  separate  headings  that  occur 
to  you,  in  what  appears  to  you  the  most  natural  order. 
Then  when  your  little  pack  of  cards  is  complete, — in 
other  words,  when  you  have  a  card  for  every  heading  that 
you  think  you  can  use,  —  study  them  and  sort  them  almost 
as  deliberately  as  a  good  player  does  a  hand  at  cards. 

Advantages  of  the  Card  Plan. — Wendell  states  that 
it  has  rarely  been  his  experience  to  find  that  a  shift  or 
change  of  arrangement  will  not  decidedly  improve  the 
original  order.  He  says  that  a  few  minutes'  shuffling  of 
these  little  cards  has  often  revealed  more  to  him  than  he 
would  have  learned  by  hours  of  unaided  pondering  over 
his  story.     The  great  advantage  of  the  cards  is  that  they 

81 


82  EflFective  Use  of  Material 

enable  the  writer  by  this  simple  act  of  rearrangement  to 
make  any  number  of  fresh  plans. 

You  will  recognize  that  you  yourself  have  been  doing 
something  like  this.  You  have  been  testing  your  work, 
first,  to  see  if  there  is  anything  you  can  leave  out  to  ad- 
vantage. And  then,  after  discarding  any  unnecessary 
point,  or  any  hindering  detail,  you  have  sought  to  get 
the  best  order  possible  to  bring  out  your  meaning.  And 
finally,  you  have  been  trying  by  proper  arrangement  to 
secure  the  *  strongest  emphasis  of  which  your  story  is 
capable.  This  card  plan  will  enable  you  to  do  all  this  a 
little  better  and  a  little  more  easily  than  before.^ 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Palazzo  Vecchio.  —  This  title  means  "  The  Old  Palace."  This 
was  at  first  the  seat  of  republican  government  at  Florence,  and 
later  the  official  residence  of  the  Medici,  that  famous  family 
which  gave  eight  dukes  to  Tuscany,  two  queens  to  France,  and 
four  popes  to  the  Vatican. 

Here  was  also  the  prison  of  Savonarola,  who  was  burned  at 
the  stake  at  a  corner  of  the  palace.  The  pavement  of  this 
court  yard  was  for  centuries  covered  once  each  year  with  vio- 
lets in  memory  of  the  good  'Savonarola  had  done,  and  in  token 
of  repentance  for  his  cruel  death. 

Write  a  description  of  the  palace,  or  if  you  prefer,  give  a  short 
account  of  its  history. 

Other  Plans.  —  The  card  plan  has  other  advantages. 
It  helps  clear  your  mind  and  arrange  your  ideas  on  the 
topic  of  which  you  have  to  speak  or  write.  Of  course,  this 
is  not  the  only  way  to  do  this.     (1)  Some  writers  sit  down 


1  Good  writing  demands  a  large  vocabulary,  a  clear  and  vigorous  style, 
and  firmness  and  flexibility  in  the  construction  of  sentences  and  para- 
graphs ;  also  correctness  as  to  details  of  form.  —  From  the  Report  of  the 
National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Reorganization  of  High  School  English. 


The  Card  Plan 


83 


and  think  the  thing  out.  (2)  Others  ask  some  one  to 
listen  to  what  they  have  written,  to  see  if  its  meaning 
is  clear.  If  it  is  not  clear,  they  rewrite  it  until  it  is 
clear.     (3)  Others  do  best  when  walking  in  the  open  air. 


Palazzo  Vecchio  at  Florence. 


84  Effective  Use  of  Material 

(4)  Some  writers  and  speakers  state  to  themselves  the 
questions  ol-  problems  they  wish  to  solve,  so  as  to  get 
them  clearly  in  mind,  and  then  trust  to  what  they  call 
"unconscious  cerebration.'*  That  is,  they  rely  on  the 
unconscious  processes  of  the  mind  to  work  it  out,  step  by 
step.  But  of  all  schemes  for  securing  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis,  the  card  plan  is  the  most  effective. 

It  is  worth  your  while  to  master  this  plan  of  Wendell's, 
and  to  use  it  until  you  find  a  better  one.  Write  out  sug- 
gestive headings  on  each  of  a  series  of  five  or  six  cards  or 
slips.  These  you  can  arrange  and  rearrange,  discarding 
any  that  need  to  be  set  aside,  until  the  order  of  arrange- 
ment suits  you.     You  can  then  write  your  story  rapidly. 

Planning  for  Paragraphs.  —  The  card  plan  has  another 
advantage,  for  it  will  always  afford  a  satisfactory  basis 
for  paragraphing.  If  the  outline  is  properly  framed,  each 
item  of  the  list  will  represent  a  separate  paragraph. 

Edward  Everett,  a  distinguished  American  writer  and 
orator,  in  preparing  an  address  on  the  Uses  of  Astronomy^ 
used  the  following  outline,  or  something  like  it.  Just  what 
he  discarded  from  his  original  outline  in  order  to  bring  it 
to  this  shape,  we  do  not  know. 

Outline 

The  appearance  of  the  sky, 

as  I  entered  the  train ; 

as  we  proceeded ; 

as  the  day  broke. 
Conclusion. 

A  careful  reading  of  this  illustration,  quoted  below,  will 
show  that  there  is  not  a  word  too  much,  and  not  an  item 
of  any  kind  that  hinders  the  flow  of  thought.  Everett 
evidently  tells  it  all  in  the  very  order  in  which  it  occurred. 
There  is,  if  you  will  note  it,  a  fine  emphasis  at  the  close. 


Planning  for  Paragraphs  85 

A  Glorious  Spectacle 

I  had  occasion  a  few  weeks  since  to  take  tlie  early  train 
from  Providence  to  Boston ;  and  for  this  purpose  rose  at  two 
o'clock  in  the  morning.     Every  thing  around  was 
wrapped  in  darkness  and  hushed  in  silence,  broken  ^^^^  ^^  ^■^^ 
only  by  what  seemed  at  that  hour  the  unearthly  sky,  as  I  en- 
clank  and  rush  of  the  train.     It  was  a  mild,  serene  ^^^^^  ^^^ 
midsummer's  night ;  the  sky  was  without  a  cloud, 
the  winds  were  whist.     The  moon,  then  in  her  last  quarter, 
had  just  risen  and  the  stars  shone  with  a  spectral  luster  but 
little  affected  by  her  presence.     Jupiter,  two  hours  high,  was 
the  herald  of  the  day ;  the  Pleiades,  just  above  the  horizon, 
shed  their  sweet  influence  in  the  east ;  Lyra  sparkled  near  the 
zenith ;  Andromeda  veiled  her  newly  discovered  glories  from 
the  naked  eye  in  the  south ;  the  steady  Pointers,  far  beneath 
the  pole,  looked  meekly  up  from  the  depths  of  the  north  to 
their  sovereign. 

Such  was  the  glorious  spectacle  as  I  entered  the  train.     As 
we  proceeded,  the  timid  approach  of  the  twilight  became  more 
perceptible ;  the  intense  blue  of  the  sky  began  to 
soften ;  the  smaller  stars,  like  little  children,  went  ^eded!*^^ 
first  to  rest ;  the  sister-beams  of  the  Pleiades  soon 
melted  together  ;  but  the  bright  constellations  of  the  north  and 
west  remained  unchanged.    Steadily  the  wondrous  transfigura- 
tion went  on.     Hands  of  angels,  hidden  from  mortal  eyes, 
shifted  the  scenery  of  the  heavens ;  the  glories  of  night  dis- 
solved into  the  glories  of  the  dawn. 

The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray ;  the  great  watch- 
stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes  ;  the  east  began  to  kindle.  Faint 
streaks  of  purple  soon  blushed  along  the  sky ;  the  as  the  day 
whole  celestial  concave  was  filled  with  the  inflow-  broke 
ing  tides  of  the  morning  light,  which  came  pouring  down  from 
above  in  one  great  ocean  of  radiance ;  till  at  length,  as  we 
reached  the  Blue  Hills,  a  flash  of  purple  fire  blazed  out  from 
above  the  horizon  and  turned  the  dewy  teardrops  of  flower  and 
leaf  into  rubies  and  diamonds.     In  a  few  seconds  the  everlast- 


86  EflFective  Use  of  Material 

ing  gates  of  the  morning  were  thrown  wide  open  and  the  lord 
of  day,  arrayed  in  glories  too  severe  for  the  gaze  of  man,  began 
his  course. 

I  do  not  wonder  at  the  superstition  of  the  ancient  Magians, 
who  in  the  morning  of  the  world  went  up  to  the  hilltops  of 
Central  Asia,  and,  ignorant  of  the  true  God,  adored 
the  most  glorious  work  of  his  hand.  But  I  am  filled 
with  amazement,  when  I  am  told  that  in  this  enlightened  age, 
and  in  the  heart  of  the  Christian  world,  there  are  persons  who 
can  witness  this  daily  manifestation  of  the  power  and  wisdom 
of  the  Creator  and  yet  say  in  their  hearts,  "  There  is  no  God." 

— Edward  Everett,  in  the  Uses  of  Astronomy,  first 
delivered  at  the  inauguration  of  the  Dftdley  Ob- 
servatory, at  Albany,  N.  Y. 

Each  of  the  four  paragraphs  of  which  this  extract  is 
composed  has  one  main  topic,  which  is  indicated  by  the 
insets  at  the  side  of  the  page.  You  will  note  that  each 
paragraph  is  distinct  and  clear,  and  that  when  Everett  has 
completed  one  item  of  his  outline,  he  does  not  go  back  to 
it,  but  goes  on  to  discuss  some  point  not  yet  touched  upon. 

The  Independent  Paragraph.  —  When  what  is  to  be  stated 
is  expressed  in  a  single  paragraph,  as  is  often  the  case,  it 
is  called  an  independent  paragraph. 

The  Lord's  prayer  is  given  in  an  independent  para- 
graph. Another  striking  example  is  afforded  in  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  address.  Almost  all  brief  editorial  comment 
in  newspaper  and  magazine  work  is  in  the  form  of  the 
independent  paragraph. 

Related  Paragraphs.  —  If  the  thought  is  expressed  in 
two  paragraphs,  the  first  paragraph  is  usually  introduc- 
tory, while  the  second  paragraph  is  more  fully  explana- 
tory. 

Where  several  paragraphs  are  used,  the  transitional  para- 
graph is  found.     Its  purpose  is  twofold.     It  is  used  either 


The  Topic  Statement 


87 


to  do  away  with  monotony  by  introducing  another  and 
newer  method  of  handling  the  subject,  or  to  introduce  an 
argument  or  an  illustration  not  before  hinted  at. 

Where  the  whole  subject  is  briefly  restated,  the  para- 
graph is  called  a  summarizing  paragraph.  This  generally 
occurs  at  the  end  of  the  article  or  story,  but  in  newspaper 
work,  in  order  to  call  attention  at  the  very  outset  to  the 
value  of  the  article  following,  it  is  often  found  at  the 
beginning. 

The  Topic  Statement.  —  A  clear,  concise  statement  of 
the  main  thought  contained  in  a  paragraph  is  called  the 
topic  statement.  This  does  not  often  occur  in  continuous 
statements  and  narratives,  but  is  frequent  in  writings 
which  follow  a  careful  outline,  and  in  arguments. 


Ready  to  Start. 
Reindeer  and  Sled,  and  Eskimo  Dog. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Alaska.  Ready  to  Start.  —  Tell  the  story  of  this  start  as  if  you 
were  the  driver.  Make  it  an  independent  paragraph  with  a  definite 
topic  statement. 


88  Effective  Use  of  Material 

The  reindeer  is  a  wonderful  gift  to  the  Eskimos.  He  is 
hardy,  strong,  and  docile,  and  fully  capable  of  taking  care  of 
himself.  He  feeds  chiefly  upon  an  Arctic  moss,  growing 
plentifully  in  Alaska.  While  the  Eskimos  gather  and  store 
quantities  of  this  for  winter  use,  the  reindeer  can  find  it  for 
himself  even  under  heavy  snows.  Formerly,  when  the  natives 
depended  upon  dogs  for  their  sleds,  the  immense  packs  of  dogs 
ate  a  large  proportion  of  the  supply  of  dried  fish  put  up  for 
winter  use,  often  reducing  their  masters  to  the  verge  of  starva- 
tion. Now,  the  reindeer  herds  increase  rapidly,  affording  skins 
for  clothing  and  harness,  and  ample  supplies  of  fresh  meat  for 
food  and  for  sale. 

Here  is  shown  a  driver  ready  to  start  for  the  Igloo  Fair, 
over  a  hundred  miles  away.  The  sled  is  carefully  packed  and 
carries  everything  for  the  journey,  including  snowshoes,  rifles, 
and  food  for  both  man  and  deer.  A  companion  reindeer  is 
bellowing  farewell,  and  to  the  right  is  seen  an  Eskimo  dog. 
The  forest  in  the  background  is  highly  valued  for  the  sake  of 
fuel,  and  logs  for  building. 

Collecting  and  Organizing  Material.  —  In  preparing  to 
speak  or  write,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  collect  material. 
Next  to  this  in  the  order  of  preparation,  but  equally  im- 
portant so  far  as  effectiveness  is  concerned,  is  the  proper 
arrangement  or  organization  of  your  material.  "  Expres- 
sion in  speech  (and  of  course  in  writing)  includes  ability 
to  collect  and  organize  material  for  oral  discourse  on  sub- 
jects of  common  interest."  ^ 

EXERCISE  IN  THE  EFFECTIVE  USE  OF  MATERIAL 

(a)  Outline  Work.  Arranging  Your  Material.  —  Collect  your  ma- 
terial, and  then  proceed  to  arrange  or  organize  it.  Take  one  or  more 
of  the  exercises  given  on  the  following  pages.  They  are  designed  for 
practice  in  arranging  an  outline  to  the  best  advantage. 


1  From  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  English^  N.  E.  A.  Commission 
on  Reorganization  of  High  Schools. 


Organizing  Material  89 

Take  a  number  of  slips  of  paper,  or  blank  cards.  As  you  read  the 
story  from  Homer,  or  that  of  Roland,  or  of  Siegfried,  given  in  thi^ 
exercise,  jot  down  suggestive  headings  for  them.  Be  careful  not  to 
put  down  any  heading  unless  it  represents  a  complete  thought  not 
previously  noted.  After  you  have  thus  made  your  headings,  look 
them  over  to  see  if  there  is  anything  you  can  get  along  without.  If 
there  is,  it  will  spoil  the  unity,  and  must  be  cut  out. 

Then  arrange  the  remaining  items  or  headings  so  as  to  bring  out 
the  story  more  clearly,  if  possible.  This  will  give  it  proper  coher- 
ence. Then  if  it  admits  of  emphasis,  try  to  secure  this  by  the 
arrangement  of  your  concluding  paragraph. 

What  naturally  falls  under  an  item  or  heading  will  constitute  a  sepa- 
rate paragraph. —  Look  over  each  paragraph  carefully,  testing  it  for 
unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis,  just  as  you  did  your  outline. 

While  you  are  to  exercise  care  in  preparing  your  notes,  and  in 
writing  from  them,  it  is  still  more  important  that  you  throw  off  all 
restraint.  Write  unreservedly,  and  tell  in  a  straightforward  way 
what  you  have  to  say.     Let  corrections  come  later. 

(6)  Paragraphing.  —  1.  Refer  to  the  Iliad,  book  x,  Bryant's 
translation,  lines  262  to  the  end  of  the  book ;  or  read  Butcher  and 
Lang's  translation  of  the  passage.  Get  the  story  well  in  mind  before 
you  start  to  write,  then  write  it  as  the  story  comes  to  you,  paying 
special  attention  to  paragraphing.  Make  a  memorandum  of  impor- 
tant names. 

Diomed  and  Ulysses,  while  the  contending  hosts  lie  sleeping, 
go  forth  together  from  the  Grecian  camp.  They  come  upon 
Dolon,  a  Trojan  sent  out  by  Hector  to  spy  upon  the  Grecian 
camps.  Dolon,  trusting  to  save  his  miserable  neck,  basely 
directs  them  where  to  find  such  of  the  Trojan  leaders  and  their 
allies  as  lie  most  exposed ;  and  especially  some  Thracians 
newly  arrived,  with  their  King  Ehesus.  Diomed  fitly  rewards 
his  treachery  by  slaying  Dolon.  Then  coming  upon  the  un- 
guarded camp  of  Ehesus,  Diomed  slays  twelve  of  the  Thra- 
cians, and  Ehesus  for  the  thirteenth.  Ulysses  meanwhile 
drives  the  famous  horses  of  Rhesus  out  of  the  encampment, 
and  the  two  return  in  triumph  to  the  camp  of  the  Greeks. 

2.  This  is  a  special  test  in  easy-flowing  story.  Refer  to  The 
Death  of  Roland,  by  Gautier,  cantos  clxx  to  clxxviii. 


QO  Effective  Use  of  Material 

Roland  is  left  by  Charlemagne  in  charge  of  a  little  valley 
in  the  Pyrenees,  still  bearing  the  name  of  Eoncesvalles,  where 
he  is  treacherously  attacked  and  slain  by  the  Gascons.  His 
brave  defense  and  knightly  death  are  well  told. 

Get  the  story  in  mind ;  arrange  your  topics  on  slips  of  paper  or 
cards;  put  them  in  the  order  which  you  finally  decide  upon,  and  let 
each  topic  thus  used  be  the  basis  of  one  paragraph.  Make  at  least 
three  paragraphs. 

3.  Refer  to  the  Norroena  Romances  and  Epics;  or  to  William 
Morris's  translation.     Read  and  tell  the  story  of  Siegfried's  youth. 

At  first,  as  he  began  to  feel  his  marvelous  strength,  it  seemed 
that  he  would  be  headstrong  and  unmanageable;  but  later, 
repenting  at  sight  of  his  mother's  grief  over  his  misdeeds, 
Siegfried  was  ever  after  true  and  dutiful.  He  slew  the  dragon, 
and  bathed  himself  in  the  dragon's  blood,  thereby  becoming 
invulnerable,  but  one  spot  remained  untouched,  and  therefore 
vulnerable.  He  found  a  wonderful  "  hiding  cap,"  which  made 
him  invisible. 

Relate  such  of  Siegfried's  adventures  as  will  bring  out  his  char- 
acter, making  him  as  Queen  Brunhild  later  says  of  him,  "  a  hero  to 
whom  the  world  belongs."  Tell  how  he  became  king  of  the  Nibe- 
lungs.     This  story  should  be  told  in  four  or  five  paragraphs. 

(c)  Vocational  Guidance.  —  Some  of  the  best  work  in  English  may 
be  done  where  the  students,  often  on  their  own  initiative,  go  through 
some  kind  of  work,  and  tell  about  it  as  they  do  it.  This  kind  of 
exercise  is  termed  dramatization.  It  is  generally  oral,  but  if  written, 
what  each  student  says  will  constitute  a  separate  paragraph.  Take 
one  or  other  of  the  following. 

1.  A  practical  poultt-y  problem.  —  To  build  an  open-front 
laying  house  for  one  hundred  hens.  This  problem  should  be 
submitted  to  a  committee  chosen  for  its  ability  in  handling 
real  questions.  The  committee  should  have  ample,  but  definite, 
time  for  reading  up  on  the  problem,  and  interviewing  poultry- 
men  and  others  capable  of  advising  what  to  do.  After  inform- 
ing itself,  it  should  think  out  a  plan,  and  furnish  working 
drawings,  true  to  scale.     The  committee  may  select  a  spokes- 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  91 

man,  familiar  with  all  details  and  thoroughly  up  on  the 
project.  This  spokesman  may  consider  himself  the  contractor, 
explaining  the  design  adopted  to  the  rest  of  the  committee, 
who  may  consider  themselves  as  the  builders.  These  latter 
may  ask  such  questions  as  will  bring  out  the  idea  of  the  plan 
more  fully.  At  the  conclusion,  any  member  of  the  class 
may  ask  practical  questions,  to  be  answered  by  any  of  the 
committee. 

2.  An  hour  in  a  millinery  shop.  —  This  is  an  example  of 
dramatization  in  English  work,  taken  from  the  domestic 
science  department.  Let  the  front  of  the  room  be  arranged 
as  a  millinery  shop.  Two  girls  are  to  act  as  milliners.  Five 
or  six  girls  from  the  class,  selected  so  as  to  afford  a  variety 
of  complexion,  style,  and  type,  take  the  part  of  customers. 
While  this  may  be  impromptu,  it  would  be  well  to  have  it 
rehearsed  once  or  twice. 

One  of  the  milliners  explains  the  making  of  a  hat,  talking  as 
she  works,  suiting  the  trimming  to  what  she  considers  the 
best  taste  for  the  customer  for  whom  she  is  making  the  hat. 
The  other  tries  one  hat  after  another  on  a  customer,  explaining 
the  principles  that  guide  her  in  her  selection  of  the  hat  best 
suited  to  the  customer.  This  she  does  with  each  customer. 
She  tries  this,  that,  and  the  other  effect,  showing  what  hats 
are  becoming  and  what  are  not  becoming  to  each.  The  cus- 
tomers give  their  own  views  too. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Fishing.  —  Tell  about  a  day  when  you  went  fishing.  When,  and 
where,  and  how?  What  luck?  Hungry?  Oh,  no!  Describe  the 
contents  of  your  lunch  basket  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  your  hearer's 
mouth  water. 

Fishing  for  Bass.  —  Shall  we  not  envy  the  sportsman  in  the 
picture  on  the  next  page  ?  He  is  "  up  to  the  minute  "  in  his 
outfit  and  equipment.  Is  that  rod  steel  or  bamboo?  It  is 
evidently  a  fine  casting  rod.  And  then  as  to  his  luck  !  He 
has  a  fine  fish  there,  and  by  the  way  he  plays  him,  will  doubt- 


92 


EflFective  Use  of  Material 


Fishing  in  Crater  Lake. 


less  land  a  four  or  five  pounder.  But  think  of  his  fishing- 
ground  !  Search  the  world  over,  you  will  not  find  a  finer  fishing 
place.  No  wonder  fishing  has  such  a  hold  on  the  men  and 
women  who  love  the  open  air,  and  the  beauty  of  land  and 
water  that  spreads  out  so  temptingly  before  them.  Have  you 
ever  had  a  taste  of  this  alluring  sport? 


CHAPTER   VIII 
EFFECTIVE   SPEAKING 


Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  trippingly  on  the  tongue. 

—  Shakespeare. 


The  Floor  Talk.  —  When  you  report  orally  on  some  as- 
signed topic,  this  report  is  called  a  floor  talk.  Stand 
squarely  on  both  feet  and  speak  clearly,  bearing  in  mind 
the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  which  you 
have  learned. 

Determine  to  Learn  to  Speak.  —  Make  up  your  mind  to 
learn  to  speak  effectively.  Say  to  yourself,  as  Abraham 
Lincoln  said  to  himself,  ''  I  will  study  and  prepare  myself, 
and  then  some  day  my  chance  will  come." 

The  floor  talk  will  be  most  effective  if  a  mental 
outline  is  followed.  This  outline  should  be  so  simple 
that  you  can  recall  it  readily  and  the  class  can  follow  it 
with  ease. 

After  you  are  through,  the  class  may  criticize  the  talk, 
making  note  of  the  good  points  rather  than  of  the  errors 
or  weak  points  in  the  delivery.  At  first,  it  may  be  found 
advantageous  to  have  the  class  write  this  criticism,  which 
the  instructor  may  hand  to  the  speaker ;  or  at  least  such 
of  these  criticisms  as  may  be  deemed  helpful. 

The  floor  talk  may  take  almost  any  shape  or  form.  It 
may  be  a  recital  of  facts,  a  statement  of  current  events, 
a  scientific  discussion,   or  a   book   review.      It  may   in- 

03 


94  Eflfective  Speaking 

elude  the  telling  of  a  story,  one  side  of  a  discussion,  or 
debate.  1 

Rules  for  the  Floor  Talk.  —  No  one  set  of  rules  or  sug- 
gestions will  fit  all  cases,  but  the  student  may  note  with 
profit  the  utterances  of  the  distinguished  speakers  quoted 
below. 

Professor  Brander  Matthews,  in  an  excellent  article  in 
the  Cosmopolitan^  July,  1898,  on  "  Four  Ways  of  Making 
an  Address,"  says :  — » 

"  When  a  man  has  something  to  say  and  when  he  has  an 
opportunity  to  say  it,  there  are  four  methods  of  making  a 
speech  for  him  to  select  from. 

1.  He  may  write  out  his  address  and  read  it  from  a  manu- 
script boldly  held  in  his  hand. 

2.  He  may  write  out  his  remarks  and  commit  them  to 
memory, 

3.  He  may  write  out  his  opening  words,  his  closing  sen- 
tences and  such  other  salient  passages  as  he  wishes  to  make 
sure  of,  while  extemporizing  the  rest. 

4.  He  may  extemporize  the  whole,  appearing  before  the 
audience  with  no  visible  manuscript  and  apparently  talking  out 
of  the  fullness  of  his  heart." 

In  the  latter  case,  where  he  seemingly  extemporizes  his 
address,  Matthews  says  that  there  must  be  a  firm  skeleton 
or  outline  holding  closely  together  all  that  he  says.  The 
sequence  of  points  to  be  made,  illustrated,  and  enforced, 
should  be  so  obvious  in  his  mind  that  they  will  float  on 
the  surface  of  his  memory,  to  be  seized  without  effort,  one 
after  another,  in  regular  order. 


1  Good  speech  demands  a  sense  for  established  idiom,  distinct  and 
natural  articulation,  correct  pronunciation,  and  the  use  of  an  agreeable 
and  well-managed  voice. 

—  From  the  Beport  of  the  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Beorgani' 
zation  of  High  School  English. 


Rules  for  the  Floor  Talk  95 

One  statement  of  this  writer  is  especially  worth  noting. 
He  says  that  the  proper  sequence  or  outline  is  so  important 
to  the  speaker  that  a  man  who  has  no  gift  for  oratory,  no 
enthusiasm,  no  fervor,  no  magnetism,  as  it  is  called,  can 
make  a  presentable  figure  on  the  platform  if  he  rises  know- 
ing exactly  what  he  wants  to  say,  if  he  says  that  and  no 
more,  and  if  he  sits  down  as  soon  as  he  has  said  it. 

Among  other  authorities,  Professor  Matthews  quotes 
from  a  noted  French  lecturer,  M.  Francisque  Sarcey,  who 
says  that  the  way  to  insure  the  success  of  a  speech  in  public 
is  to  have  made  that  speech  many  times  in  private.  You 
must  be  full  of  your  subject,  full  to  overflowing.  And 
having  planned  what  you  want  to  say,  you  must  say  it  to 
yourself  again  and  again,  trying  it  this  way  and  that, 
getting  yourself  familiar  and  intimate  with  it.  But  you 
must  make  no  effort  to  polish  your  periods,  and  must 
resolutely  refrain  from  all  attempts  to  memorize  what  you 
have  arranged.  This  leaves  the  mind  energized  and 
keenly  alert,  free  to  use  the  best  of  which  it  is  capable, 
under  the  spur  of  the  moment. 

In  connection  with  extemporaneous  work,  Thomas 
Wentworth  Higginson  in  "  Hints  on  Writing  and  Speech 
Making,"  thus  gives  his  rules  for  making  an  address* 
The  student  may  modify  them  to  suit  his  own  preferences. 

1.  Have  something  definite  in  mind  on  which  you  are  to 
speak.  Or  better  still,  have  something  that  you  desire  very 
much  to  say. 

2.  Always  speak  in  a  natural  key,  and  in  a  conversational 
manner. 

3.  Never  carry  a  scrap  of  paper  before  an  audience. 

4.  Plan  out  a  series  of  a  few  points,  as  simple  and  as 
orderly  as  possible. 

5.  Plan  beforehand  for  one  good  point  and  one  good  illus- 
tration under  each  head  of  your  speech. 


96  Effective  Speaking 

6.  Do  not  trouble  yourself  about  your  speech,  but  give  your 
mind  a  rest  after  you  have  thought  out  your  points,  before  you 
speak. 

Of  course,  the  third  rule  above  cannot  apply  if  you  decide 
to  use  notes. 


It  is  there! 
Columbus  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

It  is  There!  — Catch  the  spirit  of  the  picture.  Acquaint  your- 
self with  the  historical  facts,  and  prepare  a  talk,  using  the  story  of  the 
picture  as  the  climax  or  closing  point  in  your  address. 

Columbus  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, — Some  one  has  said 
that  there  are  single  moments  in  history  which,  like  rudders, 
steer  us  into  new  seas  of  discovery.  Is  there  not  here  pictured 
a  moment  like  that  ?  The  great  navigator  is  pleading  for  the 
idea  that  has  taken  hold  of  his  soul.  All  the  splendid  culture 
and  intelligence  of  the  courts  of  Castile  and  Leon  is  there. 
But  who  could  expect  men  to  believe  a  theory  that  would 


Attitude  and  Gesture  97 

upset  every  view  they  had  ever  held?  And  men  did  not 
believe.  If  they  forbore  to  scoff,  they  slowly  shook  their 
heads  in  doubt.  It  is  a  critical  time.  In  the  picture,  Co- 
lumbus seems  to  speak  to  but  one,  and  that  one  his  queen. 
Isabella  bends  eagerly  forward,  listening  to  the  man  who 
ere  long  will  lay  at  her  feet  a  new  world.  She  pledged  her 
crown  jewels  for  the  undertaking,  and  next  to  Columbus, 
Isabella  must  be  remembered  in  connection  with  this  great 
discovery. 

Attitude  and  Gesture.  —  The  following  points  regarding 
attitude  and  gesture  are  worth  noting. 

1.  Stand  erect  and  firm,  in  a  posture  which  allows  the  chest 
to  expand,  and  gives  full  play  to  the  organs  of  respiration  and 
utterance. 

"2.  Let  your  attitude  he  such  that  it  may  be  shifted  easily  and 
gracefully.     Let  your  hands  hang  naturally  at  your  side. 

3.  Avoid  much  gesture.  As  to  embarrassment  arising  from 
natural  timidity  or  self-consciousness,  a  thorough  preparation 
upon  your  theme,  and  a  reliance  upon  that  preparation,  will 
best  help  you  here.  You  may  count  upon  the  friendliness  of 
your  audience  as  a  general  rule. 

4.  Keep  your  eye  upon  your  audience.  Do  not  look  up  at 
the  ceiling,  or  let  your  eye  rove  over  the  heads  of  your  hearers. 
Pick  out  some  one  whose  face  shows  interest,  and  address 
much  of  what  you  have  to  say  to  him  or  her.  But  do  not  make 
the  mistake  of  talking  altogether  to  this  one  person.  Let  your 
glance  fall  on  one  side,  and  then  direct  it  to  the  other  side  of 
the  room,  and  so  on. 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  FLOOR  TALK 

(a)  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  —  This  topic  is  well  worth  while.  The 
extracts  here  given  comprise  the  original  statement  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  and  its  later  restatement  on  the  part  of  those  who  have 
been  called  upon  by  virtue  of  their  official  position  to  formulate  the 
attitude  of  America  on  this  question.     Make  any  additional  notes  you 


98  Effective  Speaking 

please,  and  use  as  much  or  as  little  as  you  think  best  of  what  is  here 
presented.  Your  public  library  will  afford  much  excellent  material 
in  the  way  of  books  written  on  the  subject,  and  especially  of  its  dis- 
cussion in  the  leading  magazines. 

Use  an  Outline.  —  In  order  to  make  what  you  write  or  speak  effec- 
tive, it  will  be  well  to  prepare  a  topical  outline.  This  will  insure  your 
sticking  to  your  subject,  and  do  away  with  aimlessness  and  inco- 
herence in  what  you  say.  Test  your  work  carefully  for  unity,  coher- 
ence, and  emphasis. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine,  Originally  Stated 

We  owe  it,  therefore,  to  candor  and  to  the  amicable  rela- 
tions existing  between  the  United  States  and  those  powers 
(any  European  powers)  to  declare  that  we  should  consider  any 
attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion 
of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety. 
With  the  existing  colonies  or  dependencies  of  any  European 
power  we  have  not  interfered  and  shall  not  interfere.  But 
with  the  governments  which  have  declared  their  independence 
and  maintained  it,  and  whose  independence  we  have,  on  great 
consideration  and  on  just  principles  acknowledged,  we  could 
not  view  any  interception  for  the  purpose  of  oppressing  them, 
or  controlling  in  any  other  manner  their  destiny,  by  any  Euro- 
pean power  in  any  other  light  than  as  the  manifestation  of  an 
unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United  States.     (130) 

—  From  the  Message  to  Congress  of  President  James 
Monroe,  on  December  2,  1824. 

The  Doctrine  Reaffirmed 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  suggest  that  the  doctrine  upon  which 
we  stand  is  strong  and  sound  because  its  enforcement  is  im- 
portant to  our  peace  and  safety  as  a  nation,  and  is  essential  to 
the  integrity  of  our  free  institutions  and  the  tranquil  main- 
tenance of  our  distinctive  form  of  government.  It  was  in- 
tended to  apply  to  every  stage  of  our  national  life,  and  cannot 
become  obsolete  while  the  Republic  endures.     If  the  balance 


Exercises  in  the  Floor  Talk  99 

of  power  is  justly  a  cause  for  jealous  anxiety  among  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  old  world,  and  a  subject  for  our  absolute  non- 
interference, none  the  less  is  an  observance  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  of  vital  concern  to  our  people  and  their  Government. 
(120) 

—  From  the  Message  to  Congress  of  President  Grover 

Cleveland,  on  December  17,  1895. 

Its  Purpose  and  Object 

That  America  is  in  no  part  open  to  colonization,  though  the 
proposition  was  not  universally  admitted  at  the  time  of  its 
first  enunciation,  has  long  been  universally  conceded.  We  are 
now  concerned,  therefore,  only  with  that  other  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  the  disregard  of  which  by  any 
European  power  is  to  be  deemed  an  act  of  unfriendliness 
toward  the  United  States.  The  precise  scope  and  limitations 
of  this  rule  cannot  be  too  clearly  apprehended.  It  does  not 
establish  any  general  protectorate  by  the  United  States  over 
other  American  states.  It  does  not  relieve  any  American 
state  from  its  obligations  as  fixed  by  international  law,  nor 
prevent  any  Europeau  power  directly  interested  from  enforc- 
ing such  obligations,  or  from  inflicting  merited  punishment 
for  the  breach  of  them.  It  does  not  contemplate  any  inter- 
ference in  the  internal  affairs  of  any  American  state,  or  in  the 
relations  between  it  and  other  American  states.  It  does  not 
justify  any  attempt  on  our  part  to  change  the  established 
form  of  government  of  any  American  state,  or  to  prevent  the 
people  of  such  state  from  altering  that  form  according  to  their 
own  will-  and  pleasure. 

The  rule  in  question  has  but  one  single  object  and  purpose. 
It  is  that  no  European  powers  or  combination  of  European 
powers  shall  forcibly  deprive  an  American  state  of  the  right 
and  power  of  self-government,  and  of  shaping  for  itself  its 
own  political  fortune  and  destinies.    (237) 

—  From  the  Letter  of  Secretary  Richard  Olney  to  Mr. 

Bayard  at  London  on  July  20,  1895. 


100  Eflfective  Speaking 

America  not  Colonizing  Ground  for  European  Powers 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  is  simply  a  statement  of  our  very 
firm  belief  that  the  nations  now  existing  on  this  continent 
must  be  left  to  work  out  their  own  destinies  among  themselves, 
and  that  this  continent  is  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  the 
colonizing  ground  of  any  European  Power.  The  one  power  on 
the  continent  that  can  make  the  Doctrine  effective  is,  of  course, 
ourselves  ;  for  in  the  world  as  it  now  is,  a  nation  which  ad- 
vances a  given  doctrine,  likely  to  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  nations,  must  possess  the  power  to  back  it  up  if  it  wishes 
the  doctrine  to  be  respected.  We  stand  firmly  by  the  Monroe 
Doctrine.   (112) 

—  President  Theodore  Roosevelt,  in  a  speech  reported 

in  The  London  Times,  August  28,  1902. 

The  United  States  Will  Never  Again  Seek  One  Additional  Foot 
of  Ground  by  Conquest 

I  want  to  take  this  occasion  to  say  that  the  United  States 
will  never  again  seek  one  additional  foot  of  territory  by  con- 
quest. She  will  devote  herself  to  showing  that  she  knows 
how  to  make  honorable  and  fruitful  use  of  the  territory  she 
has,  and  she  must  regard  it  as  one  of  the  duties  of  friendship 
to  see  that  from  no  possible  quarter  are  material  interests 
made   superior   to  human  liberty  and  national   opportunity. 

(74) 

—  President  Woodrow  Wilson,  in  an  Address  at  the 

Southern  Commercial  Congress,  Mobile,  Alabama, 
October  27, 1913. 

What;  the  Monroe  Doctrine  Does 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  halts  conquest,  not  commerce ;  it  stops 
seizure,  not  trade ;  it  prevents  war  and  insures  peace.     (18) 

— Editorial,  The  Cincinnati  Enquirer,  November  11, 1909. 

(b)  Additional  Exercises  on  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  —  Try  one  of  the 
following  orally. 


Exercises  in  the  Floor  Talk  IQl 

1.  Restate  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  fifty  words.  Write  it, 
and  then  speak  it. 

2.  Discuss  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  a  carefully  prepared 
speech  of  from  two  to  three  minutes.  Write  this  out  and 
learn  it. 

Short  Themes  for  Oral  Work.  — Endeavor  to  put  life  and  vigor  into 
the  exercises  suggested  below.  Gret  the  story  well  in  mind.  Tell  it 
over  and  over,  mentally,  until  you  catch  the  spirit  of  it.  When  this 
is  done,  let  the  story  tell  itself.     Four  to  five  minutes. 

(c)  Five  Stories  About  Girls,  from  the  Bible.  —  All  of  these  stories  are 
worth  knowing,  and  especially  worth  telling. 

1.  Pharaoh's  Daughter.     Exodus  ii,  4  to  19. 

2.  Jepthah's  Daughter.     Judges  xi,  29  to  40. 

3.  The  Story  of  Ruth.     Ruth  ii ;  or  the  entire  book. 

4.  lN"aaman's  Maidservant.     2  Kings  v,  1  to  14. 

5.  Rebecca  at  the  Well.     Genesis  xxiv. 

(d)  Five  Stories  About  Boys,  from  the  Bible.  —  These  stories  are  well 
worth  while  as  a  matter  of  general  information.  They  lend  them- 
selves to  story-telling  unusually  well. 

1.  Joseph  and  His  Brethren.     Genesis  xxxvii,  1  to  36. 

2.  Joseph  as  a  Prince  of  Egypt.  Genesis  xli,  37  to  end ; 
and  also  chapters  xlii  to  end  of  xliv. 

3.  David  and  Goliatti.     1  Samuel  xvii. 

4.  Little  Samuel.     1  Samuel  iii. 

5.  Jacob  and  Esau.     Genesis  xxvii,  1  to  40. 

(e)  Story  of  an  Unusual  Experience.  Oral.  —  If  you  have  had  some 
such  experience  as  here  suggested,  tell  about  it.  Put  force  into  your 
telling  of  it.  If  you  have  not  had  such  an  experience,  think  one  out 
and  tell  it  as  if  it  had  occurred.     Five  minutes. 

1.  My  experience  on  a  burning  ship. 

2.  How  I  felt  in  an  automobile  collision. 

3.  What  happened  to  me  in  a  hotel  fire. 

4.  What  I  know  about  a  railroad  wreck. 

5.  Landing  from  a  wrecked  aeroplane. 


IQ^,.  EflFective  Speaking 

(/)  Getting  the  Gist  or  Substance  of  the  Story.  —  Take  any  one  of 
the  stories  above  referred  to,  and  get  the  gist  or  substance  of  it.  This 
will  take  careful  practice,  but  it  is  well  worth  while.  Tell  any  one 
of  the  above  stories  in  not  noore  than  one  hundred  words.  Oral,  one 
minute. 

(7)  Applying  the  Rules.  —  In  preparing  to  speak  on  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing stories,  revieio  carefully  the  rules  suggested  on  pages  94,  95 
by  Matthews,  Sarcey,  and  Higginson. 

1.  Refer  to  the  Odyssey^  book  xxi,  entire,  Bryant's  translation. 
Or  refer  to  the  translation  of  Butcher  and  Lang,  or  that  of  William 
Morris.      This  story  is  full  of  breathless  interest. 

Ulysses  Bends  the  Bow.  —  Telemachus  has  brought  his  father 
Ulysses,  disguised  as  an  aged  beggar,  to  his  home.  Ulysses' 
wife,  Penelope,  driven  to  desperation  by  the  persistency  of 
the  shameless  suitors,  who  think  Ulysses  dead,  goes  up  to  the 
treasure  room  of  the  palace  and  taking  down  a  certain  famous 
bow  that  had  once  belonged  to  Ulysses,  she  weeps  over  it. 
Then  coming  down  to  the  banquet  hall,  she  proposes  a  contest. 
Whoever  shall  bend  this  bow  and  send  an  arrow  through  each 
of  the  twelve  rings  she  shows  them,  shall  have  Penelope  to  wife. 

Some  oppose  the  contest,  but  it  is  finally  agreed  to.  Cer- 
tain of  the  suitors  try  their  strength  and  fail.  It  is  then 
suggested  to  postpone  the  trial  to  another  day. 

Telemachus  bids  his  mother  and  the  women  depart,  Pene- 
lope being  still  unaware  of  the  presence  of  Ulysses.  At  the 
bidding  of  Telemachus,  some  of  the  faithful  servants  of  the 
palace  lock  and  bar  the  outer  doors,  with  all  the  shameless 
band  still  within,  and  suspecting  nothing. 

The  strange  beggar,  who  is  Ulysses,  now  manages  to  get 
the  bow  in  his  own  hands.  \  Trying  it  to  see  if  it  holds  its 
ancient  strength,  he  easily  bends  the  mighty  bow,  and  sends 
with  unerring  aim  the  arrows  through  the  rings.  Then  he 
nods  to  his  son  Telemachus  who,  girding  on  his  sword  and 
taking  his  spear  in  his  hand,  comes  and  stands  by  the  side 
of  Ulysses. 

2.  Refer  to  the  Fifth  Adventure,  Lettsom's  translation,  or  that  of 
William  Morris ;  also  to  the  Norroena  Romances  and  Epics. 


Exercises  in  the  Floor  Talk  103 

How  Siegfried  First  Saw  Kriemhild.  —  The  young  king  of 
the  Nibelungs  has  performed  a  number  of  feats  of  knightly 
courage  in  the  service  of  Gunther,  and  a  high  tourney  is  to  be 
held  in  his  honor.  To  this  tournament  come  five  thousand 
knights  or  more,  and  all  the  ladies  of  the  court  attend,  many 
of  them  sighing  for  Siegfried,  for,  as  they  deemed,  eye  had  not 
seen  a  pattern  of  such  manliness.  But  as  the  full  moon  dims 
the  stars,  so  Kriemhild  dimmed  every  beauty  there.  Their 
glances  meet  by  stealth,  and  bind  the  knight  and  maid  to- 
gether.    Siegfried  openly  pays  court  to  Kriemhild. 

3.  Refer  to  Earle's  translation  of  The  Deeds  of  Beowulf,  sec- 
tions vi  and  xi.  They  tell  of  the  coming  of  Beowulf  to  the  Hall, 
and  of  his  promise  to  remove  the  scourge.  Grendel's  last  meal  is 
described.  The  battle  between  Grendel  and  Beowulf  begins.  Write 
the  story  of  it  inr  about  three  hundred  words,  or  give  it  orally,  in  not 
more  than  three  minutes. 

(A)  Longer  Themes.  —  It  is  well  now  and  then  to  prepare  longer 
themes.  In  order  to  do  this,  you  may  have  to  do  some  outside  work, 
at  home  or  at  the  library,  but  you  will  find  it  interesting.^  If  you 
take  hold  of  this  as  a  class  project,  and  arrange  a  program  for  a  class 
meeting,  including  readings  and  recitations  prepared  for  the  occasion, 
with  a  good  speech  or  two  by  your  most  capable  boys  or  girls,  it 
will  be  found  thoroughly  enjoyable.  Your  instructor  in  English  is 
always  to  be  consulted,  of  course.  Use  five  hundred  or  one  thou- 
sand words  for  your  theme. 


1  With  regard  to  an  occasional  composition  or  speech  of  more  than 
ordinary  length,  the  following  recommendation  is  worth  noting. 

"This  production  should  be  the  final  measure  of  the  pupils'  ability  to 
write.  For  the  purpose  of  leading  pupils  to  write  for  recreation,  publica- 
tion days  may  be  regularly  announced  as  a  part  of  the  English  classroom 
procedure.  Programs  for  these  days  may  often  be  arranged  by  the  pupils 
themselves  for  presentation  on  these  publication  days.  Many  pupils  will 
thus  be  led  to  feel  pleasure  in  using  recreation  time  in  advance  of  the 
class  meeting  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  enjoyable  program  for  their 
classmates.  The  pupils  should  have  perfect  freedom  in  the  choice  of 
literary  forms  and  should  be  expected  to  express  themselves  correctly 
and  forcibly  in  clear,  idiomatic  English."  —  From  the  English  Syllabus, 
Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


104 


EflFective  Speaking 


Get  used  to  appearing  in  public.  It  is  'not  as  hard  as  it  may 
at  first  appear.  But  whether  hard  or  not,  it  is  worth  while.  You 
will  regret  nothing  more  in  later  life  than  that  you  failed  to 
avail  yourself  of  advantages  that  might  have  been  yours  at  high 
school. 

You  are  not  limited  to  this  plan.  If  you  prefer  something  else, 
go  to  work  on  whatever  you  like  best.  But  let  every  student  prepare 
a  longer  theme  at  suitable  intervals  throughout  the  year. 


President  Wilson  Reviewing  West  Point  Cadets. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

West  Point  Cadets.  —  Here  is  shovm  President  Wilson  re- 
viewing the  West  Point  cadets,  soon  to  become  officers  in 
the  United  States  Army.  Nowhere  in  the  world  are  there 
military  or  naval  colleges  ranking  higher  than  West  Point  and 
Annapolis. 

1.  Look  up  the  facts  and  prepare  a  paper  on  America's  training  of 
her  future  officers  in  army  and  navy. 

2.  How  to  enter  West  Point  or  Annapolis.  —  Get  the  facts  and  make 
a  statement  of  how  to  obtain  an  appointment  at  one  or  the  other  of 
these  schools. 

3.  Federal  Reserve  Training  Camps.  —  Show  how  the  United  States 
Government  trains  officers  in  training  camps  in  case  of  emergency. 
If  you  have  no  information  on  this  topic,  look  it  up.  The  public 
library  will  afford  the  necessary  material. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


105 


PiMograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 


The  Pringle  House, 
A  Colonial  Home,  Charleston,  S.  C 


The  Pringle  House,  Charleston,  S  C.  —  This  is  one  of  the 
historical  houses  of  America.  Built  before  the  Revolution,  it 
was  a  home  of  culture  and  refinement  in  Colonial  days.  It 
served  as  headquarters  for  Cornwallis,  and  was  a  rallying  place 
for  the  younger  members  of  the  English  nobility  who  were  with 
him.  Later,  it  was  Washington's  headquarters,  and  Lafayette's, 
and  the  young  men  of  the  French  aristocracy  were  welcome 
guests,  meeting  and  mingling  here  with  the  American  ofiicers 
and  their  friends.  On  Lafayette's  return  to  America  in  1825, 
when  a  grateful  people  received  him  so  heartily,  he  was  a  guest 
at  this  house.  Aaron  Burr  was  a  frequent  visitor  here.  During 
the  Civil  War,  U.  S.  Grant  at  one  time,  and  Robert  E.  Lee  at 
another  made  this  their  headquarters.  Donald  Gr.  Mitchell  (Ik 
Marvel)  was  a  connection  of  the  Pringle  family,  and  wrote  his 
Reveries  of  a  Bachelor  here.  Owen  Wister,  also  a  relative, 
wrote  The  Virginian  here. 


106  Effective  Speaking 

1.  A  Picture  in  Words.  —  Study  the  Pringle  House  until  you  can 
see  it,  as  distinct  from  any  other  house.  Then  picture  it  in  words,  so 
that  others  may  see  it. 

2.  Some  Other  Historical  House.  —  Tell  the  story  of  some  historical 
house  or  public  building  known  to  you.     Be  accurate  and  interesting. 

3.  A  Problem.  —  Select  some  building  in  your  vicinity.  It  need 
not  be  an  imposing  sti-ucture.  An  old  mill,  some  picturesque  cottage, 
an  old  mansion  back  among  the  trees,  or  the  old  church  by  the  wayside. 
Do  not  mention  it  by  name.  So  picture  it  in  words  that  your  class- 
mates will  be  able  to  identify  it.  If  you  can  attach  a  good  snapshot 
to  your  paper,  to  be  shown  to  the  class  later,  so  much  the  better. 

4.  Neighborhood  Tradition.  —  Tell  the  story  of  some  house  in  your 
neighborhood  with  which  some  tradition  is  connected.  Make  it  a 
story  worth  telling.  Write  it,  then  give  it  orally,  if  called  upon  so 
to  do. 

Effective  Appeal.  —  You  have  already  been  called  uyon 
to  speak  on  certain  topics,  for  the  most  part  in  simple, 
easy-flowing  narrative.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  for  the 
narrative  style  is  the  basis  of  all  other  styles  in  speech  or 
writing.  But  you  are  now  called  upon  to  use  everything 
within  your  reach  anywhere,  as  materials  for  persuasion 
and  appeal. 

Oratory  is  the  art  of  speaking  in  public  eloquently  or 
effectively.  Oratory  uses  every  faculty  of  the  human 
mind  in  order  to  secure  entrance  to  the  human  heart. 

Persuasion  is  defined  by  Webster's  International  Diction- 
ary as  the  art  or  act  of  influencing  the  mind  hy  arguments 
or  reasons  offered^  or  hy  anything  that  moves  the  mind  or 
passions.,  or  inclines  the  will  to  a  determination. 

In  a  case  recently  reported  in  the  newspapers,  argument 
had  failed  to  free  a  man  charged  with  an  offense  against  the 
postal  laws.     The  federal  judge  in  sentencing  him  said: 

"  I  feel  that  this  man  is  not  actually  a  criminal,  although  he 
has  committed  a  criminal  act.     I  shall  not  sentence  him  to 


Effective  Appeal  107 

the  penitentiary.     The  sentence  of  this  court  shall  be  that  you 
shall  serve  three  months  in  the  M County  Jail." 

Then  came  the  plea  that  saved  the  accused.  Stepping 
up  close  to  the  rail  and  bending  forward  toward  the 
bench,  his  voice  trembling  with  emotion,  the  little  attor- 
ney in  a  low  voice  began  : 

"  Your  Honor,  I  realize  that  you  have  been  exceedingly  leni- 
ent. I  know  that  the  Court  has  just  pronounced  a  sentence 
that  is  very  light  considering  the  offense  charged,  but,  Your 
Honor,  what  about  that  little  girl  who  is  about  to  graduate  ? 
Shall  she  appear  before  her  friends  upon  this  occasion,  dis- 
graced because  her  father  is  occupying  a  prison  cell  ?  Shall 
she?  Suspend  that  sentence.  Your  Honor,  and  have  her  eternal 
gratitude.     I  say  suspend  it !  " 

With  tears  in  his  eyes,  his  face  working  with  emotion, 
the  Judge  held  up  his  hand. 

"  Enough.     Let  that  be  the  order." 

Here  the  attorney  for  the  prisoner  spoke  eloquently 
and  effectively.  The  force  of  persuasion,  appealing  to 
the  fatherly  heart  of  the  stern  judge,  did  what  no  power 
of  argument,  and  no  influence  of  friendship  could  have 
done  in  behalf  of  the  condemned  man.  It  found  its  way 
to  the  heart,  and  won  freedom  for  the  father  for  the  sake 
of  the  girl. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  oratory  and  persuasion  is 
in  Julius  Ccesar^  where  Marc  Antony  moves  the  hearts  of 
the  Romans  against  Brutus.  Refer  to  it.  Act  iii,  scene  ii, 
and  have  it  read  aloud  in  class  by  some  good  reader.  For 
further  examples  of  the  best  in  oratory,  refer  to  Lincoln's 
Address  at  G-ettyshurg ;  Robert  Emmett's  Speech  in  reply 
to  the  judge  who  sentenced  him  to  death  ;  Patrick  Henry's 
Speech  Before  the  Virginia   Convention ;  St.  Paul's  Speecji 


108  Effective  Speaking 

on  Mars'  Hill  at  Athens  ;  as  well  as  more  modern  ex- 
amples, chosen   from  some   collection   of  great  orations. 

President  Woodrow  Wilson's  peace  speech  before  the 
Senate,  January  22, 1917,  is  an  illustration  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  very  highest  theme  in  the  simplest  form. 

Let  some  of  these  be  read  in  the  hearing  of  the  class, 
and  let  criticisms  be  made,  bringing  out  the  points  that 
appeal  to  the  students  as  possessing  the  power  of  real  ora- 
tory, with  their  reasons  for  so  thinking. 

Prepare  a  topical  outline  covering  all  the  important 
points  in  this  chapter,  and  be  prepared  to  recite  from  it. 

EXERCISES  IN  EFFECTIVE  APPEAL 

(a)  Woman  Suffrage.  —  Write  a  paragraph  of  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  words,  that  shall  contain  an  appeal 
for  the  rights  of  women.  After  putting  it  in  proper  form,  commit 
it  to  memory  for  a  speech  before  the  class. 

(6)  High  School  Athletics.  —  Take  some  subject  in  connection  with 
athletics  in  your  high  school.  Get  at  the  facts,  and  make  a  good 
talk,  in  which  you  appeal  for  the  support  of  the  class.  Make  it  a 
three-minute  speech. 

(c)  The  North  American  Indian.  —  If  you  feel  that  the  North 
American  Indian  has  not  been  fairly  treated,  espouse  his  cause.  Try 
to  make  your  audience  feel  the  points  you  thus  make  in  his  behalf. 

(rf)  The  Mountaineers.  —  Acquaint  yourself  with  the  facts,  and 
make  an  appeal  for  better  educational  facilities  in  the  mountainous 
sections  of  our  country.     Try  to  make  a  telling  speech. 

(e)  Appeal  for  Good  English  in  the  High  School.  —  Without  limiting 
yourself  as  to  the  number  of  words,  think  out  a  defense  of  Good  Eng- 
lish in  Everyday  Speech  in  the  High  School.  After  putting  it  into 
proper  form,  learn  it,  and  give  it  before  the  class. 

(/)  The  Immigrant.  —  Get  your  facts  well  in  hand,  and  make  an 
appeal  for  those  who  come  to  our  shores,  calling  your  appeal  What 
America  Owes  to  Those  Who  Come  to  Our  Shores. 

(g)  Don't  Kill  the  Birds.  —  Read  up  on  the  value  of  birds  to  the 
farmer,  and  to  us  all.  Make  an  appeal  which  shall  put  the  facts 
before  your  hearers. 

(h)  Domestic    Science.  —  Acquaint  yourself  with  the  facts  which 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


109 


demonstrate  the  importance  of  the  teaching  of  domestic  science  in 
the  high  school,  and  make  an  appeal  for  the  teaching  of  domestic 
science. 

(i)  A  High  School  Printing  Department.  —  Study  carefully  the  argu- 
ments for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  well-equipped 
printing  department  for  your  high  school.     Make  it  a  good  speech. 

(j)  Vox  Populi,  Vox  Dei.  —  Make  a  strong  appeal  for  our  system 
of  government.  Show  that  the  people  are  capable  of  deciding  the 
great  questions  of  our  times,  and  that  they  will,  in  spite  of  occasional 
error,  come  to  right  conclusions.  Write  it  and  learn  it.  Give  it  as 
a  speech  before  your  class. 


Tirade  Dressmaking  —  Pratt  Institute. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Trade  Dressmaking.  —  Here  is  a  class  at  work  on  practical 
dressmaking  at  the  Pratt  Institute.  A  study  of  the  picture 
shows  each  student  at  work  with  some  definite  task  before 
her,  with  apparently  not  a  moment  wasted.  Well  directed 
skill  is  the  secret  of  successful  effort.  This  is  an  example  of 
the  right  kind  of  vocational  training. 


110  Effective  Speaking 

1.  Describe  the  scene.  Detail  the  making  of  a  simple  dress  from 
beginning  to  end. 

2.  Vocational  Training  in  Your  School.  —  Tell  what  kind  of  voca- 
tional work  is  attempted  in  your  high  school,  either  in  domestic 
science  or  in  manual  training.    Has  your  school  a  printing  outfit? 


CHAPTER  IX 
EFFECTIVE  STORY-TELLING 


Lear.     Mend  your  speed  a  little.  —  Shakespeare, 


Swift-flowing  Story.  —  The  movement  of  a  story  should 
harmonize  with  its  spirit.  Sadness  and  slow  movement 
go  together,  while  joy  and  eagerness  quicken  the  pace  of 
the  narrative.  Milton  well  illustrates  this  in  his  com- 
panion poems  "  L' Allegro  "  and  "  II  Penseroso,"  Mirth  and 
Sadness.  The  current  of  the  one  flows  trippingly,  while 
the  movement  of  the  other  is  grave  and  slow. 

Where  the  story  quickens  into  action,  it  will  be  noted 
that  verbs,  which  represent  the  very  soul  of  action,  pre- 
dominate. ^  For  example,  in  the  parable  of  "The  Prodi- 
gal Son,"  Luke  xv,  you  may  count  over  eighty  verbs  in  a 
total  of  about  five  hundred  words.  This  story  is  remark- 
able for  its  vividness  and  swift-moving  narrative,  and  this 
number  of  verbs  is  far  above  the  average. 

In  the  play  of  Samlet^  unusually  rapid  in  its  movement, 
this  eagerness  of  narrative  is  well  shown  in  the  opening 
scene  of  the  first  act.  The  play  is  in  full  movement  from 
the  opening  sentence.  Everything  is  eliminated  but  the 
stirring  essentials  of  the  drama. 


1  In  vivid  description,  not  only  do  verbs  predominate,  but  other  parts 
of  speech  change  to  verbs.  "  On  with  the  dance  I  "  is  a  familiar  example 
from  Byron's  Waterloo. 

Ill 


112  Effective  Story-telling 


Charge  of  the  Scotch  Grays  at  Waterloo. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Charge  of  the  Scotch  Grays  at  Waterloo.  —  This  noted  paint- 
ing by  Thompson  shows  the  Scotch  Grays  in  a  mad  charge  at 
Waterloo.  Hurled  forward  like  a  mighty  projectile,  men  and 
horses  obey  the  word  of  command. 

1.  Study  this  picture  until  you  catch  some  of  the  eagerness  that 
characterizes  it.  Painting  and  writing  are  both  forms  of  expression. 
You  can  see  how  much  force  is  shown  in  the  picture.  Put  some  of 
the  same  force  into  your  account  of  the  charge,  which  you  may  write 
as  if  you  were  a  member  of  the  Scotch  Grays. 

2.  Think  out  some  one  incident  in  the  charge  until  you  not  only  see 
it  clearly,  but  feel  the  onrush.  If  you  wish  to  make  your  hearer  feel 
some  emotion,  you  must  first  of  all  feel  it  yourself.  Feel  it,  then,  and 
make  your  hearers  feel  it.     Make  it  a  swift-flowing  story. 

Vigorous  Action.  —  Where  the  action  is  roused  to  storm 
and  tempest,  or  battle,  the  swiftness  of  the  story  imparts 
velocity  to  the  telling  of  it.  This  is  well  illustrated  in 
Byron's  "Storm  on  Mt.  Jura,"  and  in  his  "Battle  of 
Waterloo  ;  "  in  Ruskin's  "  Birth  of  a  Storm  Cloud,"  in 
his  Truth  of  Clouds  ;  and  in  Victor  Hugo's  "  Escape  of  the 
Carronade,"  in  his  Ninety -three. 

This  impetuosity  of  description  shows  all  through  Car- 


Vigorous  Action  113 

lyle's  French  Revolution^  but  especially  in  his  account  of  the 
storming  of  the  Bastille.  In  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities^  when 
Dickens  describes  the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  and  in  Victor 
Hugo's  Les  Miserables,  as  he  tells  the  story  of  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,   the  movement  quickens  with  the  story. 

Refer  also  to  the  "Conflict  between  Christian  and 
ApoUyon,"  in  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  to  R.  D. 
Blackmore's  description  of  the  fight  between  John  Ridd 
and  Carver  Doone  in  Lorna  Boone,  for  a  study  of  this  per- 
ceptible quickening  of  the  current  as  the  action  of  the 
story  increases. 

Study  some  or  all  of  these  examples  just  quoted.  You 
will  also  find  the  following  account  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Turkish  army  at  Lule  Burgas  by  the  Bulgarians,  well 
worth  your  study.  It  is  a  cabled  account  by  Martin  H. 
Donahoe,  war  correspondent  of  the  London  Chronicle^ 
under  date  of  November  4,  1912. 

The  Turkish  Defeat  at  Lule  Burgas 

Irrevocable  disaster  has  befallen  the  Turkish  army.  It  has 
suffered  an  appalling  defeat.  This  has  been  followed  by  con- 
fusion and  a  rout  for  which  there  is  scarcely  a  parallel  in 
history, — a  rout  which  in  its  later  stages  degenerated  into  a 
wild  panic,  a  stampede,  which  communicated  itself  into  the 
whole  fighting  force. 

As  I  am  writing  this  dispatch  the  army  corps  forming 
Abdullah  Pasha's  splendid  army  lie  battered  and  decimated, 
and  the  defensive  lines  have  fled  pell-mell"  before  the  advanc- 
ing Bulgarians. 

It  has  been  the  most  complete  military  disaster  since  Muk- 
den, the  greatest  debacle  since  Sedan. 

Forty  thousand  men,  the  flower  of  the  Turkish  troops,  have 
fallen,  while  Abdullah  Pasha  himself  narrowly  escaped  their 
fate.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  his  artillery  was  captured.  His 
men  seemed  to  melt  away  like  snow  before  the  summer.     The 


114  EflFective  Story-telling 

disintegration  once  begun  soon  became  general.  Brigades  dis- 
solved into  regiments,  regiments  into  companies,  and  companies 
became  small  groups  until  all  cohesion  disappeared  and  the 
demoralization  became  complete.  By  handfuls  the  remnants 
of  the  army  have  found  their  way  back  to  Chortu,  the  Bul- 
garian artillery  cruelly  harassing  them,  mowing  them  down  in 
thousands.  For  a  like  disaster  one  is  compelled  to  turn  to 
Napoleon's  memorable  retreat  from  Moscow. 

In  addition  to  the  swift  current  of  this  newspaper  story, 
the  student  will  note  the  writer's  discriminating  and  effec- 
tive use  of  a  fine  working  vocabulary.  He  uses  words 
nearly  synonymous  in  such  ft  way  as  to  bring  out  a  cumu- 
lative emphasis. 

EXERCISES  m  EFFECTIVE  STORY-TELLING  i 

(a)  The  Elements  of  Effectiveness.  —  To  get  at  the  secret  of  Dona- 
hoe's  effectiveness  in  *'  The  Turkish  Defeat,"  try  these  four  exercises. 

1.  Count  the  words  used  by  this  correspondent  to  denote 
roiUj  disaster^  and  defeat. 

2.  Without  repeating  himself,  in  how  many  ways  does  this 
writer  say  that  the  Turkish  army  was  defeated  ? 

3.  Make  a  special  study,  in  your  own  way,  of  the  methods 
employed  to  bring  out  the  story  of  this  great  disaster. 

4.  Note  how  short  his  sentences  are.  Study  his  para- 
graphs, noting  how  brief  and  pointed  they  are.  He  was,  he 
states,  caught  in  the  wild  stampede  of  the  fleeing  army,  for 
two  days  without  food  or  drink,  and  yet  he  had  not  lost  sight 
for  a  moment  of  his  work  as  a  war  correspondent.  He  was 
seeing  for  all  Europe  and  for  the  whole  world,  what  was  going 
on  about  him.  He  had  been  in  other  wars  ;  so  while  he  fled 
for  his  life,  the  sentences  and  paragraphs  were  forming  in  his 


1  Do  not  require  or  allow  any  one  pupil  to  take  all  of  these  Exercises. 
They  are  given  for  the  sake  of  variety,  and  to  suit  varying  tastes.  What 
one  pupil  will  reject,  another  may  delight  in.  The  teacher  may  feel  free 
to  omit  any  exercise,  or  to  postpone  it  until  later  in  the  course. 


Exercises  in  Effective  Story -telling        115 

brain.  He  does  not  use  an  unnecessary  word.  This  report 
was  written  off  with  lightning-like  rapidity  at  the  telegraph 
office,  though  composed,  as  we  have  said,  with  the  shot  and 
shell  of  the  pursuing  army  falling  everywhere  about  him,  in 
his  two  days  of  wild  retreat. 

(b)  Swift-Jlomng  Story.  —  Try  two  or  more  of  the  following,  being 
careful  to  make  your  story  flow  swiftly. 

1.  Kead  Kipling's  The  Drums  of  the  Fore  and  Aft  and  tell 
orally  how  the  two  little  drummer-boys  shamed  a  regiment 
into  bravery. 

2.  Get  into  the  spirit  of  Victor  Hugo's  account  of  the 
charge  of  the  Cuirassiers  across  the  hollow  road  of  Ohain,  at 
Waterloo,  as  given  in  Les  Miserables.  Tell  it  orally  in  your 
own  words. 

3.  Count  the  number  of  words  in  Tennyson's  "Charge  of 
the  Light  Brigade,"  at  Balaklava.  Get  the  story  well  in  mind, 
and  write  an  account  of  that  charge. 

4.  If  you  have  seen  a  great  fire  down  town  in  a  large  city, 
think  it  over  until  you  see  it  again,  and  describe  a  great  con- 
flagration. 

5.  Write  or  give  orally  an  account  of  how  they  crossed  the 
line  in  an  exciting  boat  race  ;  or  describe  an  exciting  finish  in 
a  half-mile  run. 

6.  Refer  to  the  Odyssey,  book  vii,  lines  285-357,  where 
Ulysses  relates  the  story  of  his  sufferings.  This  is  sometimes 
said  to  be  the  one  best  piece  of  narrative  in  all  the  world  of 
literature.  It  is  an  example  of  the  best  condensed,  terse  style 
of  story-telling. 

You  will  do  well  to  note  the  qualities  that  distinguish  it. 
First  of  all,  in  dealing  with  anything  that  is  worth  telling,  you 
must  have  the  story  thoroughly  in  mind  before  telling  it. 
Mark  the  characteristic  words  that  Ulysses  uses,  and  see 
if  you  can  use  them  to  advantage. 

It  would  be  worth  while  to  count  the  number  of  words  in 
Ulysses'  account,  and  seek  to  keep  within  that  number,  in 
your  telling  of  the  story.     More  than  anything  else,  in  this 


116  Effective  Story-telling 

narrative,  study  how  swiftly  the  story  goes.  In  telling  the 
story,  catch  something  of  this  eagerness  of  recital,  if  you  can. 

7.  Refer  to  Earle's  translation  of  The  Deeds  of  Beowulf, 
sections  xii  and  xix.  After  the  combat  Grendel  flees,  but  his 
arm  remains  behind  with  Beowulf.  It  is  hung  up  as  a  trophy 
in  the  Hall.  In  the  night,  the  old  Water-hag  comes,  seizes 
one  of  the  sleepers  and  fetches  away  GrendePs  arm. 

Tell  the  story  in  your  own  words,  and  go  straight  to  the 
point.  As  Earle  has  translated  Beowulf,  so  you  will  have  to 
translate  Earle.  Do  this,  rendering  the  story  in  pure,  simple, 
and  everyday  English. 

(c)  Vigorous  Action.  —  Read  the  Odyssey^  book  xxii,  entire,  trans- 
lation of  William  Cullen  Bryant.  Or  you  may  use  the  translation  of 
William  Morris,  or  that  of  Butcher  and  Lang. 

Get  the  story  well  in  mind,  and  write  it  rapidly.  Go  over  it  as 
many  times  as  may  be  necessary,  to  remove  any  hindering  word, 
phrase,  sentence,  or  paragraph.  The  vigorous  action  is  here,  if  you 
can  but  put  it  into  your  story. 

Ulysses  Casts  Aside  His  Bags.  This  is  the  story  of  the  slay- 
ing of  the  shameless  suitors  by  Ulysses.  There  is  not  a  dull 
line  from  the  moment  that  the  hero  throws  off  his  disguise, 
and  with  Telemachus  and  a  few  faithful  servants  standing 
by  him,  turns  his  death-dealing  arrows  upon  first  one  and 
then  another  of  the  suitor  train.  Recovering  from  their 
first  surprise,  the  survivors  turn  to  the  wall  where  their 
weapons  had  hung,  only  to  find  them  all  removed.  The 
arrows  giving  out,  Ulysses  sends  Telemachus  to  the  armor 
room  for  swords  and  spears,  but  he  in  his  haste  leaves  the 
door  of  the  armory  ajar,  and  Melanthius,  a  traitor  goatherd, 
brings  down  weapons  for  the  suitors,  who,  fighting  for  their 
lives,  make  a  desperate  stand  against  Ulysses.  Pallas 
Athene,  disguised,  urges  on  the  slaughter.  All  but  two  are 
slain.     Let  the  story  end  at  line  636,  Bryant's-  translation. 

(d)  A  High  School  Project.  —  How  to  Build  a  Shower-bath  for  the 
Gymnasium.  Given,  water  from  the  city  waterworks  system,  piped 
to  the  gymnasium  room.    Problem,  how  to  heat  it ;  and  to  provide 


Exercises  in  EflFective  Story-telling       117 

warm  and  cold  showers,  and  proper  drainage.  Plan  must  be  practical, 
and  within  reach  of  the  high  school,  financially.  Work  to  be  done  by 
manual  training  department.  Spokesman  of  committee  in  charge  to 
have  necessary  plans,  blue  prints,  etc.,  and  is  to  present  the  project  in 
good,  straightforward,  business-like  English. 

(e)  Some  Effective  Stories.  —  All  the  stories  here  suggested  are 
strong  in  possibilities  at  the  hands  of  an  efEective  story-teller.  They 
may  be  written  or  oral.  If  you  attempt  any  of  the  stories,  do  it 
justice.     Do  not  slight  it. 

1.  A  New-crowned  Queen  of  the  Air.  —  Literary  Digest,  Dec.  2, 
1916,  page  1485.     Give  it  in  five  to  seven  hundred  words. 

2.  The  Story  of  the  Deutschland,  the  first  transatlantic  sub- 
marine.    Five  hundred  words  or  more. 

3.  The  Death  of  Absalom.     2  Samuel  xviii. 

4.  The  Handwriting  on  the  Wall.     Daniel  v. 

5.  Elijah  on  Mt.  Carmel.     1  Kings  xviii,  17  to  40. 

6.  Tlie  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea.     Exodus  xiv. 

7.  Joseph  Makes  Himself  Known.  Genesis  xlv.  Tell  this 
in  five  hundred  words  or  more. 

8.  Noah  Sends  Out  the  Dove.  Genesis  viii,  1  to  12.  Tell 
the  entire  story,  in  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
words. 

9.  A  Stranger  in  New  York  City.  Tell  the  story  as  if  you 
had  visited  this  city.  You  may  have  done  so,  or  you  may  live 
in  New  York,  or  vicinity.  Tell  as  much  or  as  little  as  you 
please  of  the  city  itself,  or  of  any  of  the  following. 

(a)  Grant's  tomb ;  (6)  Ellis  Island ;  (c)  Liberty  Enlighten- 
ing the  World;  (d)  the  Skyscraper  District;  {e)  The  Zoo; 
(/)  Cleopatra's  Needle  ;  {g)  The  Metropolitan  Museum. 

(/)  Class  Letter. — Let  the  pupils  composing  the  English  class  pre- 
pare a  letter  from  their  own  high  school  to  the  English  class  of  some 
high  school  to  be  selected.  Request  a  reply.  In  this  letter,  deal  with 
the  prominent  points  of  Interest  in  your  own  city.  Place  on  the 
blackboard  the  points  you  desire  to  touch  upon.  Let  a  committee  of 
from  one  to  three  write  the  letter,  to  be  submitted  to  the  class  for 
correction  and  adoption.  Mail  it  to  the  instructor  in  English,  nam- 
ing the  high  school,  and  city. 


118 


EfiFective  Story-telling 


Street  Scene,  Cairo. 
One  of  the  Great  Capitals  of  Islam. 


f 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  119 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Street  Scene,  Cairo.  —  Cairo,  the  capital  of  Egypt,  is  the  larg- 
est city  of  Africa.  Its  Arab  quarters  retain  their  Oriental 
character.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  and  very  few 
of  them  are  paved.  Its  mosques  are  among  the  best  specimens 
of  Arabic  architecture,  and  it  is  one  of  the  great  capitals  of 
Islam.  Life  within  these  walls  represents  a  blend  of  buoyant 
European  civilization  with  the  dreamy  mysticism  of  the  Ori- 
ental world. 

Study  the  scene.  Consider  yourself  a  young  American  traveler, 
boy  or  girl,  and  think  out  a  story  of  original  adventure  suited  to  the 
scene.  Let  all  that  happens  in  your  tale  occur  on  the  street  here 
shown,  and  let  it  be  such  as  could  easily  happen.  Here  is  a  good  test 
for  your  ingenuity.     Tell  your  story  as  effectively  as  you  can. 


CHAPTER  X 
EFFECTIVE  REVISION 


The  young  writer  can  solidly  pack  his  meaning  within  manage' 
able  compass  and  get  an  audience  for  it,  or  he  can  spread  it  thinly 
over  a  vast  area  and  let  it  go  unread. 

—  Editorial,  July  19,  1913,  The  Saturday  Evening  Post. 


What  to  Omit.  — So  far  you  have  studied  effective  ex- 
pression ;  you  are  now  to  take  up  effective  suppression* 
You  secure  effectiveness  fully  as  often  by  what  you  omit 
as  by  what  you  say.  Walter  Pater  sums  up  this  fact  in 
a  few  words  when  he  says  that  all  art  consists  simply  in 
the  removal  of  surplusage^  and  that  the  writer  dreads  sur- 
plusage in  his  work  as  the  runner  dreads  it  in  his 
muscles.^ 

You  have  seen  throughout  your  English  work  that  you 
should  omit  everything  that  interferes  with  unity  or 
coherence.  But  emphasis  especially  is  best  secured  by  the 
judicious  suppression  of  unimportant  matter. 

Revising.  —  There  is  no  practical  English  work  more 
constantly  applied  in  the  business  world  than  restating  or 
reshaping  material. 

Nearly  all  successful  writers  of  English  have  perfected 
their  style  by  constant  revision.  Many  of  them  have  told 
how  they  went  to  work,  and  you  will  find  their  statements 
in  the  following  pages.  Read  them  carefully  ;  they  con- 
tain rules  of  rhetoric  written  by  men  who  know. 

1  Compare  this  with  the  statement  of  Schiller,  p.  18. 
120 


Revising  121 

William  Cowper 

To  touch  and  retouch  is  the  secret  of  almost  all  good  writing. 
I  never  suffer  a  line  to  pass  until  I  have  made  it  as  good  as 
I  can.     (29) 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson 

All  through  my  boyhood  and  youth,  I  was  known  and 
pointed  out  for  a  pattern  of  an  idler;  and  yet  I  vras  always 
busy  on  my  own  private  end,  which  was  to  learn  to  write.  I 
kept  always  two  books  in  my  pocket,  one  to  read,  one  to  write 
in.  As  I  walked,  my  mind  was  busy  fitting  what  I  saw  with 
appropriate  words.  When  I  sat  by  the  roadside,  I  would 
either  read,  or  a  pencil  and  book  would  be  in  hand  to  note 
down  the  features  of  the  scene.  Thus  I  lived  with  words. 
And  what  I  wrote  was  for  no  ulterior  use.  It  was  written 
consciously  for  practice.     (Ill) 

Guy  de  Maupassant 

Flaubert,  a  great  French  writer,  conceived  a  friendship  for 
me.  I  ventured  to  submit  to  him  some  of  my  attempts.  The 
master  criticized  them  and  enforced  upon  me,  little  by  little, 
two  or  three  principles  which  were  the  pith  of  his  long  and 
perfect  teaching.  "  If  one  has  not  originality,"  he  said,  "  it  is 
necessary  to  acquire  it.  Talent  is  long  patience.  Work."  It 
is  a  question  of  regarding  whatever  one  desires  to  express  long 
enough  and  with  attention  close  enough  to  discover  a  side 
which  no  one  has  seen  and  which  has  been  expressed  by 
nobody.  In  everything  there  is  something  of  the  unexplored. 
The  smallest  thing  has  in  it  a  grain  of  the  unknown.  Discover 
it.  In  order  to  describe  a  fire  that  flames  or  a  tree  in  the 
plain,  we  must  remain  face  to  face  with  that  fire  or  that  tree 
until  for  us  they  no  longer  resemble  any  other  tree  or  any 
other  fire.     That  is  the  way  to  become  original.     (165) 

Benjamin  Franklin 

About  this  time  I  met  with  the  third  volume  of  the  Spec- 
tator.      I  bought  it,  read  it  over,  and  was   much   delighted 


122  EflFective  Revision 

with  it.  I  thought  the  writing  excellent  and  wished  if  possi- 
ble  to  imitate  it.  With  this  view  I  took  some  of  the  papers, 
and  making  shoi  c  hints  of  the  sentiments,^  laid  them  by  for  a 
few  days  and  then,  without  looking  at  the  book,  tried  to  com- 
plete the  papers  again,  by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at 
length,  and  as  fully  as  it  had  been  expressed  before,  in  any 
suitable  words  that  should  come  to  hand.  Then  I  compared 
my  "Spectator"  with  the  original,  discovered  some  of  my 
faults,  and  corrected  them.  I  also  sometimes  jumbled  my  col- 
lection of  hints  into  confusion,  and  after  some  weeks  en- 
deavored to  reduce  them  into  the  best  order,  before  I  began  to 
form  the  full  sentences  and  complete  the  paper.  This  was  to 
teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement  of  my  thoughts.  By 
comparing  my  work  afterwards  with  the  original,  I  discovered 
many  faults  and  amended  them.     (207) 

F.  Hopkinson  Smith 

The  only  inspiration  I  know  of  in  writing  is  days  and  nights 
of  the  labor  called  thought.  I  wrote  the  first  chapter  of 
Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville  nine  times  and  corrected  the 
proofs  until  the  printer  refused  to  send  any  more. 

I  am  conscious  that  I  cannot  do  very  much,  but  the  little 
I  do  is  done  the  very  best  I  know  how.  I  write  very  large 
and  heavy,  and  when  the  words  necessary  to  make  the  proper 
swing  or  rhythm  will  not  come,  I  make  dashes  representing 
the  length  of  the  missing  words,  and  fill  them  in  when  revis- 
ing. And  I  never  rise  from  my  chair  until  the  work  I  have 
laid  out  is  done.     (116) 

Elbert  Hubbard 

Now  in  reference  to  writing,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  explain 
that  no  one  ever  said,  "  Now  then,  I'll  write  a  story ! "  and 
sitting  down  at  table  took   up   pen  and  dipping  it  in  ink 


1  Compare  this  excellent  plan  with  that  of  Barrett  Wendell,  detailed  in 
chapter  viii  of  this  book,  '*  How  to  Use  Material." 


Revising  123 

wrote.  Stories  don't  come  that  way.  Stories  take  possession 
of  one,  incident  after  incident,  and  you  write  in  order  to  get 
rid  of  them,  with  a  few  other  reasons  mixed  in.  Whether  the 
story  is  good  or  not  depends  upon  what  you  leave  out.  The 
sculptor  produces  the  beautiful  statue  by  chipping  away  such 
parts  of  the  marble  block  as  are  not  needed. 

To  present  a  situation,  an  emotion,  so  that  it  will  catch  and 
hold  the  attention  of  others,  is  largely  a  knack.  You  practise 
on  the  thing  until  you  do  it  well.  Even  Kipling's  art  is  a 
knack  practised  to  a  point  that  gives  facility.     (143) 

Arlo  Bates 

I  have  had  well  educated  and  cultivated  men  come  into 
my  office  when  I  was  an  editor,  and  spend  an  hour  in  trying 
satisfactorily  to  phrase  some  simple  announcement  which 
they  wished  printed.  All  that  there  was  to  do  was  to  say 
that  such  a  charity  needed  funds,  that  a  subscription  had 
been  opened,  or  some  learned  society  was  to  meet  at  such 
a  time  or  place.  Yet  the  amateur  would  struggle  with  the 
paragraph  in  an  agony  of  ineptitude  which  was  alike  pathetic 
and  farcical. 

When  at  last  the  conflict  between  mind  and  matter  ended 
from  the  sheer  exhaustion  of  the  mind,  there  would  be  handed 
to  me  a  scrawled  sheet,  recrossed  and  rewritten,  and  in  the  end 
a  miracle  of  obscurity  and  awkwardness,  —  the  art  of  how  not 
to  say  it  illustrated  to  perfection.  Then  after  the  writer  had 
taken  himself  off,  in  a  condition  not  far  from  nervous  exhaus- 
tion, it  was  only  necessary  to  say  to  a  reporter,  "  Make  a  para- 
graph of  these  facts."  In  a  couple  of  minutes  the  slip  would 
be  ready  to  send  to  the  printer,  written  in  English  not  elegant 
but  easy  and  above  all  clear. 

The  reporter  had  very  likely  not  the  hundredth  part  of  the 
information  or  the  experience  of  life  of  the  amateur,  but  he 
had  had  a  continued  business-like  drill.  He  had  written  as  a 
matter  of  steady  work,  with  the  improving  consciousness  of  an 
editorial  blue  pencil  ever  before  his  mind.     (240) 


1^4 


EflFective  Revision 


Thomas  Carlyle 

Shakespeare,  we  may  fancy,  wrote  with  rapidity ;  but  not 
till  he  had  thought  with  intensity  :  long  and  sore  had  this  man 
thought,  as  the  seeing  eye  may  well  discern,  and  had  dwelt  and 
wrestled  amid  dark  pains  and  throes,  —  though  his  great  soul 
is  silent  about  all  that.  It  was  for  him  to  write  rapidly  at  fit 
intervals,  being  ready  to  do  it.  And  herein  truly  lies  the  secret 
of  the  matter:  such  swiftness  of  mere  writing,  after  due 
energy  of  preparation,  is  doubtless  the  right  method ;  the  hot 
furnace  having  long  worked  and  simmered,  let  the  pure  gold 
flow  out  at  one  gush.  It  was  Shakespeare's  plan;  no  easy 
writer  he,  or  he  had  never  been  a  Shakespeare.     (119) 


Shakespeare  at  the  Court  of  Elizabeth.  —  Ender. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Shakespeare  at  the  Court  of  Elizabeth.  —  Tell  the  story  of  this 

picture  in  your  own  way.     You  may  give  it  as  if  it  were  your  own 

experience  as  a  courtier,  or  a  lady  at  court  that  day.    You  may  make 

believe  that  you  have  come  upon  some  letters  of  the  olden  time, 


Important  Cautions  125 

among  which  is  one  describing  this  scene.  Or  you  may  tell  the  story 
as  having  been  told  by  some  one  then  present  to  some  one  else,  who 
in  turn  passes  it  along  till  it  is  handed  down  in  the  family  as  a  sort 
of  household  story.  Choose  whatever  form  of  telling  it  appeals 
to  you.  When  you  have  finished,  revise  it  according  to  one  of  the 
methods  just  quoted  from  successful  authors. 

Important  Cautions.  — It  may  be  well  for  the  permanent 
editorial  committee^  upon  consultation  with  the  instructor 
in  English,  to  inquire  carefully  as  to  the  following  addi- 
tional points  ^  with  regard  to  the  punctuation  of  the  daily 
exercises  of  the  pupils.  These  should  be  added  to  the 
lists  on  previous  pages. 

XXII.  Use  of  quotation  marks.  —  (a)  lN"ote  that  these  are 
used  to  inclose  a  direct  quotation.  He  said :  "  James,  I  regret 
to  see  you  depart."  Quotation  marks  are  unnecessary  in  the 
case  of  an  indirect  quotation ;  as,  He  said  to  James  that  he 
regretted  to  see  him  depart. 

(b)  Quotation  marks  are  not  used  to  inclose  each  separate 
sentence  unless  each  sentence  is  a  separate  remark.  For 
example :  He  replied :  "  I  cannot  go  now.  Much  as  I  desire  to 
respect  your  wishes  in  everything,  it  is  impossible  for  me  to 
leave  to-day.  But  I  shall  go  at  my  earliest  opportunity." 
Here  are  three  sentences  included  between  the  one  pair  of 
quotation  marks,  because  they  make  up  one  remark. 

(c)  Note  that  in  the  use  of  quotation  marks  the  second  mark  is 
as  im'portant  as  the  first.  Quotation  marks  go  in  pairs,  and  mean 
nothing  unless  thus  coupled  together.  Note  also  that  two  sets 
of  marks  are  needed  where  the  quotation  is  broken.  "  Come," 
he  said,  "  tell  me  now." 

Prepare  a  topical  outline  bringing  out  the  salient  points 
as  you  see  them  in  this  chapter.     Prepare  to  recite  from  it. 


1  From  Hequirements  in  Form,  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 


126  EflFective  Revision 

EXERCISES  IN  EFFECTIVE  REVISION 

(a)  Reshaping.  —  Read  the  preceding  selections  over  once  for  theil 
own  sake.  Then  read  them  again  with  a  view  to  their  restatement  in 
your  own  words.  You  are  to  tell  what  each  writer  says,  orally  or  in 
writing,  but  to  say  it  in  your  own  way.  Sift  it  out.  Study  what  he 
says,  and  express  it  in  your  way  of  saying  things,  except  that  you  are 
to  use  no  slang. 

If  any  writer  uses  some  unusual  word  or  phrase,  decide  how  you 
would  say  the  same  thing,  putting  it  in  some  other  way.  See  if  you 
can  improve  on  any  word,  phrase,  sentence,  or  paragraph.  It  may  be 
that  you  can.     Try  it,  modestly  but  courageously. 

In  this  sort  of  work,  you  are  doing  what  others  are  required  to  do 
everywhere  about  you.  The  telegraph  editor  of  a  great  newspaper 
uses  a  ten-word  "  wireless  "  message  and  makes  it  into  a  two-column 
news  item  on  the  first  page.  The  sales  manager  of  a  strong  corpora- 
tion takes  a  sentence  from  the  report  of  a  field  worker  and  restates  it 
in  a  full-page  letter,  to  be  sent  out  to  every  representative  employed 
by  his  company.  A  sentence  or  a  paragraph  from  the  President's 
message  is  restated  in  the  editorials  of  a  thousand  news  journals  and 
magazines,  all  over  the  world. 

(b)  Condensing.  —  In  the  following  restatements,  see  if  you  can 
make  what  you  write  more  effective  than  the  original. 

1.  Give  Cowper's  statement  in  ten  words. 

2.  Repeat  in  twenty-five  words  what  Stevenson  says ;  then 
in  fifty  words. 

3.  Tell  in  one  hundred  words  how  Maupassant  was  trained. 

4.  Detail  in  two  hundred  words,  how  Franklin  discovered 
his  faults  as  a  writer,  and  how  he  set  to  work  to  improve 
his  work. 

6.    Say  what  Smith  says  in  seventy-five  words. 

(c)  What  a  Good  Story  Depends  Upon.  —  Give  in  one  paragraph 
the  requirements  of  a  good  story. 

(rf)  The  Value  of  Omission.  —  What  does  a  good  story  depend  upon? 
Answer  in  twenty-five  words,  or  less,  quoting  Hubbard. 

(e)  The  Value  of  Training.  —  Tell  in  two  hundred  words,  or  more, 
why  a  good  reporter  may  do  better  than  a  man  intellectually  his 
superior,  when  it  comes  to  writing.  Include  in  this  what  Arlo  Bates 
says  about  "the  blue  pencil." 


Exercises  in  Effective  Revision  127 

(/)  A  Social  Project  for  the  English  Class.  —  Plan  a  day's  outing 
in  camp,  arranging  for  a  camp  dinner  and  a  gypsy  supper,  as  a  high 
school  project  in  English.  The  appointment  of  committees,  and  the 
written  statement  to  each  member  of  the  duties  expected  of  him  or 
her,  will  require  much  speaking  and  writing  on  the  part  of  the  secre- 
tarial committee,  whose  title  indicates  its  duties. 

The  following  additional  committees  are  suggested.  (1)  An 
executive  committee,  whose  chairman  shall  be  in  charge  of  the 
entire  project ;  (2)  a  committee  on  preliminaries,  whose  mem- 
bers are  to  inform  themselves  and  the  class  on  what  has  been 
done  by  this  and  other  schools  on  gypsying  projects  ;  (3)  a  com- 
mittee on  location  and  transportation,  which  is  to  select  the  site 
for  the  camp ;  (4)  a  committee  on  publicity  and  invitation  ; 
(5)  a  committee  on  chaperons ;  (6)  a  committee  on  "  safety 
first,"  to  provide  pure  drinking  water,  ice,  etc.,  to  insure  camp 
hygiene,  to  guard  against  accidents,  and  to  provide  first  aid  to 
the  injured,  should  this  be  necessary ;  (7)  a  committee  on 
program  and  camp-fire  entertainment ;  (8)  a  commissary 
committee,  to  provide  for  suitable  things  to  eat ;  and  as  a  sub- 
committee of  this  latter,  the  camp  cooks. 

Do  not  forget  the  camp  stew,  the  clam  bake,  or  roasting-ear 
bake,  the  marshmallow  toast,  the  sausage  roast,  the  fish  fry,  or 
the  chance  to  barbecue  the  meat. 

Letters,  notes,  lists,  bulletins,  suggestions,  etc.,  will  provide 
work  in  English  for  a  week. 

(g)  Effective  Revision.  —  Let  one  boy  and  one  girl,  selected  for 
their  keenness  and  judgment  in  correcting  written  work,  deal  with  the 
letters  and  communications  that  go  out  from  each  committee  with 
reference  to  the  above  project.  Let  nothing  go  from  either  committee 
or  individual  that  has  not  received  an  "  O.K."  from  this  revision  com- 
mittee. 

(h}  Let  the  editorial  committee  take  the  following  set  of  exercises  in 
hand,  for  the  purpose  of  making  effective  revision  of  the  work  done 
by  the  pupils  under  their  direction,  of  course  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  instructor  in  English.  After  such  revision,  which 
should  be  keen  but  kindly,  let  the  papers  be  rewritten,  or  the  speeches 
revised. 


128  Effective  Revision 

1.  Daniel  and  the  Lion's  Den.  —  Tell  the  story,  as  found  in 
Daniel  vi. 

2.  TJie  Story  of  Samson.  Judges  xvi,  4  to  31.  —  Or  tell  the 
entire  story.  If  you  please,  you  may  refer  to  Milton's  Sam- 
son Agonistes.     Give  it  orally.     Seven  to  ten  minutes. 

3.  Cinderella.  —  Tell  the  story  of  Cinderella. 

4.  Dramatization.  Robin  Hood.  —  Take  the  stories  con- 
cerning Kobin  Hood  and  his  Merry  Men,  and  write  a  play  to 
be  presented  before  the  English  class.  Do  not  introduce  too 
many  characters. 

5.  A  Visit  to  Washington,  D.  C.  —  Tell  what  you  can  about 
the  City  of  Washington.  Include  what  you  please  about  the 
Capitol,  the  White  House,  the  Washington  Monument,  the 
Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  Penn- 
sylvania Station,  and  anything  else  you  like.  Give  it  in  the 
form  of  a  talk,  or  of  a  letter.  It  would  be  well  for  an  English 
class  in  any  of  the  Washington  high  schools  to  make  it  a  class 
letter  to  the  English  class  of  some  other  city. 

6.  A  Rescue.  —  Two  girls  are  rowing  in  high  glee,  all  un- 
conscious of  the  fact  that  a  stiff  wind  is  blowing  them  out  to 
sea.  Tell  the  story  of  two  boys,  members  of  the  same  class 
in  high  school,  as  they  row  out  to  warn  them,  and  help  them 
back  to  safety. 

7.  Travel  Letters.  Some  boy  or  girl  of  the  class  may  have 
been  abroad,  or  have  just  come  to  your  school  from  some 
foreign  country.  Ask  for  a  letter  describing  some  such  city 
as  the.  following :  (a)  Quito,  Ecuador ;  (6)  Shanghai,  China ; 
(c)  Cape  Town,  South  Africa;  {d)  Calcutta,  India;  (e)  Con- 
stantinople, Turkey;  (/)  Tokio,  Japan;  {g)  Rome,  Italy; 
Qi)  Nome,  Alaska.  Let  every  student  who  has  lived  in  a 
foreign  city,  describe  that  city. 

(t)  The  Skeleton  in  Armor.  —  Have  Longfellow's  poem  of  this  title 
read  aloud  in  class  by  one  or  two  of  the  best  readers  in  the  class.  Let 
the  story  be  written  in  class.  Each  student  will  then  revise  his  first 
draft,  with  the  vie^  of  telling  the  story  in  his  own  way.  He  may 
discard  such  details  as  in  his  judgment  hinder  the  story,  or  introduce 


Exercises  in  Effective  Revision  129 

any  features  he  chooses.  What  is  wanted  is  a  swift-flowing  story, 
told  in  each  student's  best  manner,  and  revised  by  himself  in  such  a 
way  as  to  leave  little  room  for  the  most  careful  revision  on  the 
part  of  any  one  else.  The  story  as  told  by  the  student  is  not  to  be 
limited  at  all  by  the  incidents  of  Longfellow's  story. 

{j)  Getting  the  Gist  of  an  Address.  —  Listen  to  some  speaker  in 
school  or  outside.  Aim  to  get  the  gist  or  substance  of  what  he  says. 
Then  expand  this  in  not  more  than  five  hundred  words. 

(k)  Drill  in  Coherence.  —  Refer  to  the  Finnish  epic,  Kalevala,  trans- 
lated by  Crawford,  its  English  title  being  The  Land  of  Heroes,  and 
tell  the  story  of  Rune  2d,  The  Birth  of  the  Forests.  Get  away  from  the 
quaiut  style  in  which  it  is  written,  and  tell  the  story  in  pure  and 
simple  English,  in  your  own  way  of  saying  things.  If  your  story 
does  not  hang  together  revise  it  carefully  with  special  reference  to 
coherence. 

The  Birth  of  the  Forests.  —  Wainamoinen,  the  Hiawatha  of 
the  Finns,  sows  the  forests  upon  the  island  of  his  choice.     He 
plants  vines  upon  the  hills,  and  bushes  in  the  valleys  ;  birches 
in  wet  places,  and  oaks  upon  the  borders  of  the  streams.     Fir- 
trees  he  plants  and  pine-trees,  alders  and  lindens  and  willows, 
hawthorns,  and  junipers,  and  mountain  ash.     The  oak-tree  is 
slow  to  grow ;  but  when  it  grows,  it  is  tall  and  stately. 
Far  It  stretches  out  its  branches, 
Stops  the  white-clouds  in  their  courses. 
With  its  branches  hides  the  sunlight.  — 

It  overshadows  the  land,  and  the  barley  cannot  grow.  Then 
the  hero  asks  for  help  from  his  mother  to  rid  the  land  of  the 
oak-tree,  that  the  barley  may  grow.  Help  is  sent.  The  forest, 
all  but  the  silver  birch,  is  cut  down.  And  then  he  prays  that 
the  barley  fields  may  rustle.  Finding  barley  seeds  and  seeds 
of  rye  washed  ashore,  he  plants  them,  and  they  grow. 

(I)  Drill  in  Emphasis.  —  Read  the  story  of  Kriemhild's  dream,  in 
Lettsom's  translation  of  the  Nihelungenlied,  1st  Adventure,  or  as 
given  by  William  Morris;  or  by  Wagner;  or  in  the  Norroena 
Romances  and  Epics.  Write  the  story,  emphasizing  the  fate  of  the 
falcon.  Test  your  tale  to  see  if  this  episode  is  made  striking 
enough.     If  not,  rewrite  it. 


130 


Effective  Revision 


This  adventure  tells  how  Kriemhild,  sister  of  Gunther,  ruler 
of  Burgundy,  and  niece  of  Hagan,  dreamed  of  the  coming  of 
her  hero.  In  her  first  youth,  she  had  no  thought  of  marriage. 
She  dwells  with  her  mother,  Queen  Ute,  at  Worms,  past  which 
flows  the  fair  Rhine.  She  has  a  dream  which  she  relates  to 
her  mother,  that  she  had  trained  a  wild  young  falcon  for  many 
a  day,  until  two  fierce  eagles  tore  it.  Her  mother  interprets 
this  to  mean  that  a  knight  will  soon  devote  himself  to  her,  but 
that  some  of  her  own  kinsmen  will  seek  to  do  him  deadly  harm. 


Photographed  by  Frank  C.  Sage. 

Topping  the  Timbers. 
Close  work  in  a  hurdle  race. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Topping  the  Timbers.  —  Here  are  two  fellows  sailing  over  the 
hurdles.     Any  high  school  might  be  proud  of  either. 

Describe  a  hurdle  race,  putting  as  much  life  into  your  writing  aa 
these  youngsters  do  into  their  work.  When  you  have  finished,  try  to 
revise  your  work  as  effectively  as  you  can. 

What  special  qualities  does  the  hurdler  need  f  There  are  some  elements 
of  skill  required.  Interview  some  expert  hurdler,  and  write  an  article 
for  your  high  school  paper  that  will  be  worth  reading. 


PART   TWO 
EFFECTIVE   ENGLISH   IN   SOCIAL  USE 

CHAPTER   XI 
SOCIAL   AND   BUSINESS   ENGLISH 


WTiat  appears  to  be  art  in  letters,  may  he  habit  which  has  beeomt 
second  nature.  — Macaulay. 


Letter- writing.  —  There  is  no  art  in  everyday  life  so 
important  as  letter- writing.  No  one  can  claim  to  have 
an  ordinary  English  education  who  cannot  write  a  good 
letter  promptly  and  unhesitatingly,  at  least  so  far  as  form 
is  concerned. 

A  home  letter  should  be  neat,  correct,  and  legible.  So 
carelessly,  oftentimes,  are  home  letters  written  that  it 
takes  longer  to  decipher  them  than  it  took  the  writer 
to  scribble  them.     This  is  manifestly  unfair. 

Business  Correspondence.  — Business,  in  this  age  of  busi- 
ness, depends  increasingly  upon  correspondence.  The 
manager  writes  to  his  agents  and  they  in  turn  write  to 
their  representatives  or  subordinates.  Traveling  sales- 
men write  to  the  home  office  every  night,  or  should  do  so, 
while  letters  and  telegrams  go  to  them,  even  where  the 
long  distance  telephone  has  been  called  into  requisition 
several  times  during  business  hours.  It  is  important  to 
have  everything  down  in  black  and  white. 

Essential  Elements.  —  There  are  a  few  essential  elements 

131 


132  Letter-writing 

which  are  easy  of  acquirement.     The    writing   must  be 
neat  and  legible,  free  from  shading  or  any  peculiarities. 

Poor  spelling  on  the  part  of  any  young  man  or  woman 
who  writes,  is  not  only  objectionable  but  unpardonable. 
Many  an  application  has  been  rejected,  many  a  request 
refused,  many  a  proposition  turned  down,  simply  because 
the  writer  was  a  poor  speller.  To  send  a  letter  full  of 
errors  in  spelling  is  little  less  than  an  insult. 

The  business  letter  shows  forth  the  firm.  Many  a  valu- 
able contract  has  been  lost,  to  say  nothing  of  the  larger  busi- 
ness that  might  have  followed,  because  a  stenographer  was 
incompetent  and  the  office  stationery  cheap  and  unattractive. 

Next  to  advertising,  the  business  correspondence  of  a  firm 
is  the  largest  factor  in  business  getting,  and  in  keeping 
the  business  when  once  secured. 

The  Typewriter.  —  The  introduction  and  widespread  use 
of  the  typewriting  machine  has  made  much  difference  in  mod- 
ern letter-writing.  Letters  are  simpler  and  more  direct  now 
than  before.  The  better  class  of  firms  send  out  only  type- 
written letters,  although  of  course  personal  letters  continue 
to  be  written,  and  not  typewritten ;  as  do  also  letters  out 
of  business  hours,  where  the  stenographer  is  not  available. 

One  reason  for  the  use  of  the  typewriter  is  the  con- 
venience of  carbon  copies  of  typewritten  letters.  In  these 
days  of  filing  systems^  all  the  correspondence  of  a  firm  is 
filed.  For  convenience  in  finding,  these  copies  are  some- 
times filed  under  four  or  five  headings,  in  a  system  of  cross 
filing,  and  the  stenographer  makes  four  or  five  carbon 
copies  of  each  letter  she  writes. 

Busy  men  sometimes  refuse  to  spend  their  valuable 
time  in  deciphering  a  letter  written  with  a  pen.  The 
stenographer  makes  a  copy  of  such  letters  on  the  type- 
writer, and  sends  it  to  the  one  who  is  to  "handle"  it, 
that  is,  read  it  and  dispose  of  it. 


The  Typewriter 


133 


A  letter  of  instruction,  or  of  business,  as  well  as  of 
ordinary  friendship,  is  all  the  more  agreeable  and  useful 
if  it  can  be  read  at  a  glance,  and  its  meaning  immedi- 
ately gathered  by  the  reader.  Formal  notes  between 
friends  and  acquaintances,  and  letters  or  notes  required 
by  the  usages  of  polite  society,  are  not,  however,  to  be 
written  on  the  typewriter. 


The  Belfry  Tower  of  Bruges. 
This  has  one  of  the  finest  chimes  in  Europe. 


134  Letter-writing 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  Belfry  Tower  of  Bruges.  —  This  tower,  besides  possessmg  a 
distinctively  picturesque  beauty,  has  a  chime  of  forty-eight  bells,  re- 
puted to  be  among  the  finest  chimes  in  Europe.  Look  up  its  history, 
if  within  reach,  and  write  one  of  your  classmates  a  letter  about  it. 

The  Belfry  of  Bruges.  —  Two  poems  of  H.  W.  Longfellow 
refer  to  this  belfry  tower.  Let  some  pupil  of  the  English 
class  who  is  a  good  reader  give  "  The  Belfry  of  Bruges  "  as  a 
reading  or  recitation.     Let  another  read  "  Carillon." 

Tlie  Bells  of  Shandon.  —  Let  some  good  reader  recite  or  read 
"The  Bells  of  Shandon."  Francis  Mahony,  who  wrote  under 
the  "  pen  name  "  of  Father  Prout,  is  the  author. 

The  Bells,  by  Edgar  Allan  Poe.  —  Let  some  capable  reader 
give  Poe's  poem  of  this  title. 

Suggestions  for  Letter-writing.  —  1.  Unruled  paper  is 
now.  generally  used  for  all  forms  of  letters. 

2.  A  postscript  may  be  added  if  necessary,  but  it  is 
better  omitted. 

3.  In  writing  to  a  comparative  stranger,  I  am  is  better 
than  I  remain,  at  the  conclusion. 

4.  Date  all  notes,  as  well  as  all  letters.  The  date 
may  later  prove  an  important  factor. 

5.  In  addressing  a  letter  or  note  to  a  married  woman, 
omit  her  husband's  title. 

6.  In  addressing  a  firm  composed  entirely  of  ladies, 
you  may  use  either  form  given  below. 


The  Woman's  Exchange, 

227  East  9th  Street, 
Toledo,  Ohio. 
Ladies : 


The  Cooperative  Poultry  Co., 
Ninth  &  Elm  Streets, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Mesdames  : 

We  have  your  note,  etc.  We  beg  to  inquire,  etc. 

7.  In  writing  from  the  larger  cities,  the  name  of  the 
state  may  be  omitted.  In  addressing  envelopes,  always 
give  the  name  of  the  state. 


Suggestions  for  Letter-writing  135 

8.  For  convenience  of  delivery  on  the  part  of  the  post 
office  it  is  well  to  note  the  following  method  of  writing  the 
superscription  upon  the  envelope.  Illegible  writing  and 
all  deviations  from  the  regular  order  of  addressing  the  en- 
velopes tend  to  hinder  and  delay  the  delivery  of  letters  so 
addressed. 


Return  to 
WILLIAM  S.  BROWNING,  Jr., 
231  TENTH  STREET,  CLEVELAND,  O. 


Dk.  chaeles  warren, 

15  East  129th  Street, 
Chicago, 

Illinois 


9.  In  sending  a  note  to  be  delivered  by  a  friend,  it  is 
J  T-oper  to  leave  it  unsealed.  It  is  equally  proper  for  the 
i  'lend  to  seal  it  as  soon  as  it  comes  to  his  hand. 

10.  Postal  cards  are  not  intended  for  anything  like 
intimate  correspondence,  or  for  •  important  business  com- 
munications. If  they  are  used,  both  the  salutation  and 
the  conclusion  may  be  omitted.  They  may  be  signed 
with  the  initials  only. 

11.  Picture  postals,  illustrating  the  neighborhood  you 
are  visiting,  or  expressing  holiday  greetings,  are  accept- 
able reminders  of  your  interest  in  friends  at  a  distance. 
They  require  but  a  few  words,  just  enough  to  identify  the 
sender. 

12.  Cards  of  greeting  for  birthday  and  similar  oc- 
casions, if  appropriately  selected,  are  in  good  taste,  and  re- 
quire only  a  few  words. 


136  Letter-writing 

13.  Sign  your  name  clearly.  A  showy  signature  is 
in  poor  taste. 

14.  Do  not  use  abbreviations  in  correspondence. 

15.  Be  courteous.  Boorishness  is  nowhere  so  unpar- 
donable as  in  a  letter. 

16.  A  business  letter  should  be  concise  and  definite. 
If  questions  have  been  asked,  they  should  be  answered  con- 
secutively. Where  several  items  are  to  be  dealt  with, 
some  firms  require  that  each  item  be  handled  in  a  separate 
letter,  for  convenience  in  filing. 

17.  Do  not  write  in  anger.  Cool  off.  Do  not  send 
a  letter  about  which  there  is  any  question  in  your  mind. 
When  in  doubt,  tear  it  up.  Never  say  "  Burn  this  letter." 
It  is  equivalent  to  confessing  that  you  know  it  is  not  a 
proper  letter  to  send. 

18.  Do  not  tell  your  troubles.  Keep  them  to  yourself. 
By  the  time  your  letter  reaches  its  destination  you  will 
have  forgotten  them. 

19.  Be  careful  not  to  say  more  than  you  intend.  Be 
even  more  reserved  in  writing  than  in  conversing. 

20.  Keep  a  copy  of  important  letters. 

21.  Take  time  to  read  your  letters  over,  and  in  case  of 
important  letters,  read  them  more  than  once. 

Prepare  a  topical  outline.  Cover  the  important  sugges- 
tions about  letters.  Be  prepared  to  recite  from  your 
outline. 

EXAMPLES  OF  LETTERS 

Abraham  Lincoln's  Letter  to  Mrs.  Bixby  of  Boston 

Dear  Madam : — I  have  been  shown  in  the  files  of  the  War  De- 
partment a  statement  of  the  adjutant  general  of  Massachusetts, 
that  you  are  the  mother  of  five  sons  who  have  died  gloriously 
on  the  field  of  battle.  I  feel  how  weak  and  fruitless  must  be 
any  words  of  mine  which  should  attempt  to  beguile  you  from 
the  grief  of  a  loss  so  overwhelming.     But  I  cannot  refrain 


Examples  of  Letters  137 

from  tendering  to  you  the  consolation  that  may  be  found  in 
the  thanks  of  the  republic  they  died  to  save.  I  pray  that  our 
Heavenly  Father  may  assuage  the  anguish  of  your  bereave- 
ment, and  leave  you  only  the  cherished  memory  of  the  loved 
and  lost,  and  the  solemn  pride  that  must  be  yours  to  have  laid 
so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the  altar  of  freedom. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

A  Letter  of  Friendship  from  Charles  Lamb 

East  India  House, 

May  21,  1819. 
Dear  Rickman, 

The  gentleman  who  will  present  this  letter  holds  a  situation 
of  considerable  importance  in  the  East  India  House,  and  is  my 
very  good  friend.  He  is  desirous  of  knowing  whether  it  is  too 
late  to  amend  a  mere  error  in  figures  which  he  has  just  dis- 
covered in  an  account  made  out  by  him  and  laid  before  the 
House  yesterday.  He  will  best  explain  to  you  what  he  means, 
and  I  am  sure  you  will  help  him  to  the  best  of  your  power. 

Why  did  we  not  see  you  last  night  ? 

Yours  truly, 

Charles  Lamb. 

A  Letter  From  an  Experienced  Man 

Charles  P.  Swing,i 

133  West  Eighth  St., 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Feb.  2, 1917. 
X.  Y.  Z., 

Care  of  The  Enquirer, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Dear  Sir : 

Answering    your   advertisement   in   Sunday's    Enquirer,   I 
beg  to  make  application  for  a  position  with  you.     I  have  been 


1  The  writer  gives  his  address,  on  the  letter-head  of  the  L.  &  N.  R.R. 


138 


Letter-writing 


employed  by  the  L.  &  N.  E.  E.,  as  file,  trace,  and  reconsigning 
clerk,  and  also  as  assistant  tariff  compiler.  I  beg  to  refer  you 
to  the  officials  named  on  this  letterhead,  which  I  use  by  per- 
mission of  this  office. 

Respectfully  yours, 

Charles  P.  Swing. 


Norman  Stairway. 
In  close  of  Canterbury  Cathedral. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Norman  Stairway,  Canterbury  Cathedral. — -Among  the  in- 
teresting examples  of  various  styles  of  architecture  shown  in 
this  book,  the  splendid  staircase  here  pictured  ranks  high.  It 
is  a  perfect  piece  of  Norman  style  and  is  quite  unrivaled  in 
England.     It  is  among  the  glories  of  Canterbury. 

Write  a  friend  a  letter  describing  it  as  it  appears  to  you. 

Norman  Architecture.  —  Prepare  a  study  of  Norman  archi- 
tecture.    Illustrate  by  postcard  pictures  of  churches,  cathe- 


Exercises  in  Letter-writing  139 

drals,  and  Norman  castles  or  ruins  of  castles.  If  your  school 
possesses  a  reflectoscope,  use  it  to  show  these  pictures.  Many 
high  schools  own  or  have  access  to  lantern  slides.  These  will 
make  a  tine  basis  for  an  illustrated  talk  or  lecture  on  Norman 
architecture.  If  so  desired,  a  committee  of  the  English  class 
may  arrange  to  have  a  number  of  pictures  shown,  each  to  be 
explained  by  some  member  of  the  class.  When  this  exercise 
is  well  prepared,  such  talks  are  interesting. 

EXERCISES  IN  LETTER- WRITING 

(a)  Preparing  Letters  from  Outline.  —  Suppose  that  a  neighbor  asks 
you  to  write  a  letter  for  her.  She  is  unable  to  write,  owing  to  some 
injury  to  her  hand.  Put  the  letter  into  perfect  shape,  ready  for  her 
signature. 

She  details  an  annoying  circumstance  happening  to  her  and  her 
little  child,  just  recovering  from  sickness.  Boys  threw  stones  at 
her  and  the  child,  frightening  it  so  that  it  has  not  yet  fully  re- 
covered. She  discovers  the  name  of  one  of  the  boys,  and  addresses 
his  father.  She  gives  the  name  of  the  father,  and  his  address. 
Seventy-five  words. 

(h)  Preparing  the  Reply.  —  Suppose  that  the  father  to  whom  the 
above  lettet-  is  addressed  is  out  of  town.  The  mother  brings  the  letter 
to  you,  not  knowing  that  you  had  written  it.  She  asks  you  to  write  a 
reply.  In  the  absence  of  her  husband,  she  has  punished  the  boy,  and 
is  sending  him  to  the  writer  of  the  letter  to  make  due  apology,  which 
she  trusts  will  be  acceptable.  She  regrets  the  illness  of  the  little 
child,  and  asks  if  she  car  be  of  any  service.  Prepare  the  letter,  ready 
for  the  mother  to  sign.     Fifty  words. 

(c)  Class  Correspondence.  —  Let  the  class  prepare  a  careful  lettet 
to  the  English  class  in  a  high  school  in  some  foreign  country.  For  in- 
stance, write  to  Montreal,  asking  for  a  letter  in  return  which  shall  de- 
scribe the  winter  sports  in  that  city.  Decide  on  what  there  is  in  your 
own  neighborhood  that  is  characteristic  or  novel  in  the  way  of  summer 
or  winter  sport,  and  write  a  good  description  of  it.  Before  sending 
your  class  letter,  ask  the  class  in  the  other  school  if  they  are  willing  to 
accept  your  plan.  Then  write  your  first  descriptive  letter,  to  which 
they  will  reply. 

(d)  Letters  Describing  Unusual  Methods  of  Locomotion.  —  If  you  have 
had  experience  in  any  of  the  methods  here  named,  or  suggested  by 


140  Letter-writing 

them,  write  a  letter  detailing  your  experience.  You  may  use  your 
imagination  in  describing  some  unusual  mode  of  travel,  but  only  on 
condition  that  you  read  up  in  some  book  or  lecture  to  make  your 
account  true  to  conditions.     Two  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

1.  A  ride  on  an  Eskimo  sledge,  drawn  by  Eskimo  dogs. 

2.  A  passenger  on  an  aeroplane  or  dirigible. 

3.  Towed  out  to  sea  by  a  whale. 

4.  Afloat  on  an  iceberg. 

5.  A  ride  in  a  submarine. 

6.  A  trip  in  a  rickshaw,  in  Japan ;  or  in  a  palanquin,  in  China. 
7  A  caravan  trip  through  the  Sahara;  or  a  trip  over  the 

Andes,  as  a  driver  of  llamas. 

(e)  Letters  Describing  Unusual  Occupations.  —  Write  a  letter  to  a 
friend  of  your  own  age,  describing  some  one  of  the  following  occupa- 
tions.    Be  sure  of  your  facts.     Two  hundred  words  or  more. 

1.  On  a  sugar  plantation  in  Cuba. 

2.  On  a  raisin  farm  in  California. 

3.  In  a  coal  mine  in  West  Virginia. 

4.  On  a  cattle  ranch  in  Texas. 

5.  On  a  stock  farm  in  the  Blue  Grass  region  of  Kentucky. 

6.  As  member  of  a  fishing  fleet  off  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland. 

7.  In  a  maple  sugar  orchard  in  Vermont. 

8.  As  camp  cook  on  a  hunting  trip  to  Arkansas ;  or  in  the 
lumber  camps  of  the  Northwest. 

PROBLEMS  IN  LETTER -WRITING 
Problems  *  for  Letters.  —  Prepare  letters  to  meet  the  following 
conditions.     Say  all  that  you  want  to  say,  but  use  as  few  words 
as  possible.     Criticize  your  own  work,  so  as  to  leave  but  little 
for  others  to  criticize. 


1  The  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  strongly  urges 
definite  problems  in  letter  writing.  It  suirgests  a  full  and  detailed 
statement  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the  letter  is  supposed  to  be 
written. 


Problems  in  Letter-writing  141 

(a)  Asking  for  a  Job.  —  Your  neighbor  has  a  large  pile  of  old 
lumber,  evidently  to  be  cut  up  for  kindling.  Write,  asking  for  the 
job,  to  be  done  out  of  school  hours.  Also,  give  her  reply,  stating 
what  she  is  willing  to  pay.  She  asks  that  after  cutting  it  up,  you 
store  it  neatly  in  her  cellar.     Reply,  accepting  her  terms. 

(&)  A  Request.  —  You  have  an  opportunity  to  go  to  the  theater  to 
see  a  play  which  your  English  class  is  about  to  read.  Write  to  your 
teacher,  stating  that  your  only  opportunity  to  see  it  will  be  at  the 
Wednesday  matinee,  and  requesting  permission  to  be  absent  at  that 
time.     Write  her  reply. 

(c)  Excuse  for  Tardiness.  —  A  neighbor's  child  fell  from  a  swing, 
breaking  an  arm.  You  had  to  go  for  a  physician,  and  to  assist  him 
on  his  arrival.  You  were  tardy  in  consequence.  Write  the  excuse  as 
as  if  your  mother  wrote  it,  and  have  it  ready  for  her  signature. 

(d)  You  had  to  go  to  court  to  testify  about  an  automobile  accident. 
This  accounts  for  two  days*  absence.  Your  father  is  to  sign  the  note, 
but  asks  you  to  have  it  ready  to  sign.     Fifty  words. 

(e)  You  have  a  test  in  algebra  to-morrow,  and  by  mistake  brought 
home  the  wrong  book.  Your  friend  happens  to  have  two  copies. 
Write  a  note  stating  the  circumstances,  and  that  the,  messenger  will 
wait  for  a  reply.  Your  friend  sends  the  book,  and  a  note.  Write  her 
answer. 

(/)  On  coming  home  at  noon,  you  find  your  mother  ill.  Your  little 
sister  has  mislaid  her  geography,  and  has  been  sent  home  for  it. 
Write  a  note  for  your  mother  to  sign,  stating  that  she  is  too  ill  to 
look  for  it  now,  but  will  do  so  to-night.  She  asks  that  the  child  be 
allowed  to  remain  at  school,  and  promises  to  have  the  book  by  to- 
morrow morning. 

{g)  Telephone  Trouble.  —  Your  telephone  is  not  working.  Prepare 
a  note  stating  the  dif&culty,  so  that  a  friend  in  the  same  building  may 
notify  the  telephone  company  over  the  'phone.  Write  a  brief  note  to 
tjiis  friend,  asking  her  to  call  up  and  report. 

(Ji)  Advertising  Your  School.  —  Quite  a  number  of  high  schools 
arrange  with  their  local  newspaper  to  run  a  special  news  column, 
using  five  hundred  words  or  more,  indicating  whatever  happens  at 
school  of  n)ore  than  passing  interest.  These  items  are  put  into  good 
shape,  following  the  style  of  the  newspaper  in  question,  and  are 
prepared  by  students  appointed  by  the  class  for  the  work.  Prepare 
a  letter  to  your  newspaper,  asking  that  such  a  plan  be  arranged  by 
them.    Write  it  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  words. 


142  Letter-writing 

(i)  Making  a  Suggestion.  —  Write  a  letter  for  publication  in  your 
local  newspaper.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  many  communi- 
ties public-spirited  citizens  make  gifts  to  the  high  schools  for  various 
needs  of  the  schools.  State  that  your  school  needs  a  printing  depart- 
ment, and  ask  that  some  one  supply  this  need.  Use  one  hundred 
words. 

0)  Writing  to  a  Public  Official.  —  As  a  committee  of  one,  write 
to  the  mayor  or  commissioner  of  your  city  for  permission  to  visit  the 
city  ofl&ces  in  search  of  information  regarding  the  community  plan. 
Use  one  hundred  words.  Write  his  reply,  granting  your  request,  in 
thirty  words. 

{k)  Getting  Permission  to  Skate.  —  The  pond  on  the  neighboring 
farm  is  just  the  place  for  skating,  if  you  can  get  permission  to  use  it. 
Write  for  permi&sion  to  Mr.  William  Bowen,  who  lives  on  the  Willow 
Run  farm.     Seventy-five  words. 

{I)  Making  Arrangements.  —  Your  high  school  desires  to  make  an 
excursion  to  some  place  of  interest  in  your  vicinity.  Write  to  the 
agent  of  the  railroad  that  runs  through  the  place,  asking  him  to  give 
you  rates,  and  to  suggest  the  best  time  for  such  a  trip.  Use  fifty 
words. 

(rn)  An  Invitation.  —  The  literary^  society  of  which  you  are  a  mem- 
ber desires  to  invite  the  literary  society  of  a  neighboring  high  school 
to  visit  you  on  the  occasion  of  a  "  publication  day,"  at  which  time  a 
number  of  papers,  speeches,  and  a  debate,  are  to  be  given.  Write  the 
letter  in  seventy-five  words  or  less. 


AuLD  Brig  o'  Doon. 
Across  which  Tam  O'Shanter  rode. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  14S 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Auld  Brig  o'  Doon.  —  Here  is  that  old  bridge  over  the  Doon,  across 
which  Tam  O'Shanter's  mare  "  Maggie  "  thundered  with  a  pack  of 
witches  in  full  cry  at  her  heels. 

1.  Tam  O'Shanter's  Ride.  —  With  this  scene  in  your  mind's 
eye,  tell  the  story  of  this  eventful  ride,  and  the  mad  effort  of 
faithful  Meg  to  make  the  keystone  of  the  bridge  and  bring  her 
master  off  hale.  Eobert  Burns  often  said  that  he  counted 
this  his  best  effort.     If  so,  isn't  it  worth  your  telling  ? 

2.  John  Oilpin's  Ride.  —  Eefer  to  Cowper's  poem  of  this 
title  for  a  humorous  account  of  a  notable  ride.  Tell  it  in  one 
hundred  words. 

3.  Paul  Revere' s  Ride.  —  This  is  told  in  "  The  Landlord's 
Tale,"  in  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  by  Longfellow.  Give  it  in 
your  own  way. 

4.  Balaklava.  —  William  Howard  Russell,  in  the  London 
Times,  describes  the  charge  of  the  Scotch  Grays  and  the  Ennis- 
killens  at  Balaklava.  You  will  find  it  in  Classic  Tales  by 
Famous  Authors,  Volume  I.     Kead  it  and  retell  it. 

5.  The  Light  Brigade.  —  Read  Tennyson's  "  Charge  of  the 
Light  Brigade,"  and  tell  the  story  in  one  hundred  words. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  PARTS  OF  AN  EFFECTIVE  LETTER 


Order,  and  distribution,  and  singling  out  of  parts,  is  the  life  of 
dispatch.  —  Bacon. 

Divisions  of  a  Letter.  —  No  other  kind  of  composition  is 
so  rigidly  governed  by  usage  as  letters.  The  manner  of 
address  and  subscription,  the  position  of  the  address,  dates, 
and  so  on,  and  the  punctuation  of  letters,  are  all  regulated 
by  custom.  It  is  therefore  important  for  you  to  observe 
these  forms,  and  not  deviate  from  them. 

The  parts  of  a  letter  are, 

1.  the  heading ; 

2.  the  address ; 

3.  the  salutation ; 

4.  the  body  of  the  letter ; 

6.  the  complimentary  close ; 
6.  the  signature. 

In  the  letter  given  below,  each  of  these  parts  is  indi- 
cated by  the  corresponding  number  in  a  parenthesis. 

(1)   Cleveland,  May  29th,  1916. 

(2)  Mr.  Charles  A.  Maynard, 

3295  Euclid  Avenue, 
Cleveland. 

(3)  Dear  Sir: 

(4)  I  have  your  favor  of  the  28th  inst.,  applying  for  a  posi- 
tion in  this  office  during  the  summer  montlis. 

The  character  of  our  work  is  such  that  all  our  employees 
144 


Divisions  of  a  Letter  145 

are  hired  with  the  idea  of  remaining  with  us  permanently.  If 
we  were  to  employ  you  for  the  summer  months  you  would 
leave  us  just  at  the  time  you  were  becoming  familiar  with  the 
work,  and  we  should  then  be  obliged  to  break  in  another  new 
man.  I  regret  that,  under  the  circumstances,  we  shall  not  be 
able  to  avail  ourselves  of  your  services. 

(5)     Yours  truly, 

(6)     Wm.  R.  Arrowsmith. 

In  the  following  letter,  the  arrangement  differs  slightly 
from  the  first  example,  while  the  general  form  of  the 
letter  is  about  the  same. 

The  Thompson,  Ellington  Company 

General  Farm  Supplies 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

(1)   St.  Louis,  Sept.  26, 1916. 

(2)  Messrs.  Browning  Sons  &  Co. 
Hardware  and  Farm  Supplies 
Galveston,  Texas. 

(3)  Gentlemen : 

(4)  We  notice  on  our  books  that  you  have  not  bought  any- 
thing from  us  since  last  May.  Is  there  any  reason  for  this  ? 
If  so,  and  you  think  that  the  fault  is  on  our  side,  will  you  not 
kindly  so  indicate  at  your  early  convenience  ? 

When  our  representative  last  called  on  you,  you  told  him 
that  you  would  send  an  order  down  to  his  hotel.  Later,  by 
telephone,  you  stated  that  you  would  mail  an  order  to  the 
house.  We  should  appreciate  it  if  you  can  see  your  way  clear 
to  send  us  an  order.  We  value  our  old  customers  and  their 
good  will  too  much  to  let  anything  stand  in  the  way  that  can 
be  remedied  by  any  concession  in  reason. 

(5)  Thanking  you  in  advance  for  your  continued  favor,  we  are 

Very  truly  yours, 

(6)     The  Thompson,  Ellington  Co. 

Charles  Thompson,  President 


146  Parts  of  a  Letter 

The  Heading.  —  1.  The  heading  includes  the  address 
of  the  writer  and  the  date  on  which  the  letter  is  written. 

2.  It  should  occupy  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of 
the  first  page,  about  an  inch  from  the  top  of  the  page. 

3.  The  heading  may  include  one,  two,  or  three  lines. 
Where  it  is  printed  or  engraved  on  the  paper,  it  will  prob- 
ably be  in  the  middle  of  the  page,  and  about  an  inch  from 
the  top.  In  that  case,  the  date  line  should  be  in  the  right- 
hand  corner,  about  an  inch  below  the  printed  or  engraved 
heading.  If  the  writer  prefers,  instead  of  a  heading,  his 
address  may  be  written  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of 
the  letter,  about  an  inch  below  the  line  on  which  the 
signature  is  written. 

4.  While  a  comma  may  be  used  at  the  end  of  each 
item  or  line  of  the  heading,  its  use  is  not  necessary.  In 
case  of  abbreviation  in  the  heading,  a  period  should  be  used. 


3353  Peachtree  Ave. 
Atlanta,  Georgia 
February  2,  1917. 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  1,  17 


3644  Baltimore  Ave., 
Kansas  City,  Mo., 
Jan.  9, 1917. 

Seattle,  Wash., 
June  1,  1917 

American  Association  for  International  Conciliation. 
Sub-station  84,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

March  9,  1912 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 
Egyptians  Plowing.  —  Here  is  shown  a  primitive  method 
of  tilling  the  soil.  Egypt's  soil  is  so  fertile  from  the  annual 
Nile  overflow  that  it  was  once  the  granary  of  the  world,  and  it 
is  even  now  wonderfully  productive.  As  has  been  said,  the 
farmers  there  have  but  to  tickle  the  soil  with  the  plow,  and  it 
laughs  into  abundant  harvest.  This  plowing  scene  looks  like  a 
page  from  ancient  history.  Patient,  plodding,  and  strong,  these 
oxen  do  their  work  well. 

Tell  the  story  of  such  a  day's  plowing,  as  if  you  were  a  spectator. 


The  Address  147 


Egyptians  Plowing. 
Here  was  once  the  world's  granary. 

The  River  Nile.  —  Refer  to  the  cyclopedia,  and  prepare  an  account 
of  the  Nile  iu  its  influence  upon  the  fertility  of  the  Egyptiau  valley 
lands. 

The  Address.  — 1.  The  address  is  written  at  the  upper 
left-hand  corner  of  the  letter,  one  inch  below  the  date 
line.  It  should  begin  one  inch  from  the  left  side  of 
the   page. 

2.  The  address  may  include  one,  two,  or  more  lines. 
It  is  a  matter  of  taste  as  to  indenting  the  second  and 
third  lines,  or  writing  these  directly  under  the  first 
line. 

3.  In  letters  of  friendship,  the  address  is  often  omitted. 
It  is  better  to  give  it,  however. 

4.  In  addressing  a  woman,  use  Miss  or  Mrs.  In  the 
case  of  a  married  woman,  her  husband's  usual  address  is 
used,  unless  it  is  known  that  she  prefers  otherwise.  In 
this  case  her  own  name  is  used.  But  she  should  never  be 
addressed  with  her  husband's  title.  If  she  holds  an  offi- 
cial position,  or  has  any  professional  title,  her  own  name 
should  invariably  be  used. 


148  Parts  of  a  Letter 

5.  The  President  of  the  United  States  may  be  addressed 

thus, 

The  President  of  the  United  States, 

Executive  Mansion,  ^ 

Washington,  D.  C. 

6.  A  man  should  be  addressed  as  Jfr.,  and  a  firm  by 
its  firm  name.  The  use  of  Messrs.  with  a  firm  name  is 
a  matter  of  taste.  It  is  proper  to  use  the  titles  i>r., 
Reverend^  and  so  forth,  but  Esq,  is  now  seldom  used. 
Ordinarily,  the  full  title  should  be  used  in  military,  offi- 
cial, and  professional  titles. 


Mrs.  Charles  J.  Warren, 
325  Indiana  Ave., 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 


Mr.  r.  P.  Keppel, 
Sub-station  84, 
Kew  York  City 


The  Salutation.  —  1.  The  salutation  is  placed  at  the 
left,  below  the  address,  and  about  one  inch  from  the  left 
side  of  the  paper.  If  the  address  is  omitted,  as  in  friendly 
letters,  the  salutation  is  written  one  inch  below  the  date 
line.     The  following  are  proper  in  business  letters  : 

Dear  Sir,  Sir,  or  Sirs,  Mesdames, 

My  dear  Sir,  Dear  Madam,  Dear  Miss  Mary, 

Dear  Sirs,  My  dear  Madam,  My  dear  Miss  Sue, 

Gentlemen,  Madam, 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  adjectives  after  the  first  word 
of  the  salutation  are  used  without  a  capital. 

The  salutation  for  the  president  is  Sir^  or  Mr.  President. 
For  the  governor  of  the  State,  Your  Excellency  is  used. 
For  the  mayor  of  a  city.  Your  Honor  may  be  used.  In  offi- 
cial communications,  use  Sir.,  Sirs,  or  Gentlemen.  For  either 
a  married  or  an  unmarried  woman.  Madam  may  be  used. 

Hon.  James  M.  Cox,  Governor, 

Columbus,  Ohio, 
Your  Excellency : 


The  Body  of  the  Letter  149 

Hon.  George  Puchta,  Mayor, 
Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Your  Honor : 

Miss  Catherine  Hardcastle, 
1214  Seventh  Avenue, 
Louisville,  Kentucky, 

My  dear  Madam : 

2.  In  letters  of  friendship,  where  the  correspondents 
are  acquainted  with  each  other,  it»is  proper  to  use  the 
forms  Dear  Miss  Harrison^  My  dear  Mrs.  Wilson^  Dear 
Mr,  Johnson^  My  dear  Doctor  Edwards.  No  familiarity 
is  implied  in  such  terms  of  address.  While  Doctor  may 
be  abbreviated  QDr.)  in  the  address,  it  should  be  spelled 
out  in  full  in  the  salutation.  Professor  should  never  be 
abbreviated  in  a  letter. 

In  letters  of  friendship,  where  the  writers  are  of  the 
same  family,  or  on  very  friendly  terms,  such  phrases  as 
My  dear  Elizabeth^  Dear  Frances,  My  dear  Friend,  My 
dear  little  Niece,  are  permissible.  But  it  is  a  caution 
worth  keeping  in  mind  that  undue  familiarity  in  writing, 
as  in  speech,  is  not  in  good  taste. 

3.  At  the  close  of  the  salutation,  a  comma  may  be 
used,  or  a  colon.  In  business  letters,  it  is  common  to  use 
the  colon,  followed  sometimes  by  a  dush. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter.  —  1.  The  body  of  the  letter 
should  be  carefully  paragraphed,  each  paragraph  being 
properly  indented  and  punctuated.  Each  paragraph 
should  deal  with  a  single  point,  clearly  expressed. 

2.  The  body  of  the  letter  may  begin  on  the  same  line 
as  the  salutation,  and  half  an  inch  or  an  inch  from  it,  to 
the  right.  But  it  is  better  to  begin  on  the  second  or  third 
line  below.  Some  careful  writers  prefer  to  begin  the  first 
paragraph  of  the  body  of  the  letter  at  the  same  distance 


150  Parts  of  a  Letter 

from  the  left  side  of  the  letter  as  the  other  paragraphs. 
In  this  case,  it  should  begin  on  the  first  line  below  the 
salutation.  Business  houses  have  a  set  form  for  their 
letters,  and  the  student  should  follow  these  forms  im- 
plicitly, on  first  taking  hold  in  a  new  position. 

The  Complimentary  Close.  — 1.  The  complimentary  close 
of  the  letter  is  placed  one  line  below  the  last  line  of 
the  body  of  the  letter,  and  toward  the  right  side  of  the 
page. 

2.  As  in  the  saluta^on,  so  here,  the  relationship  exist- 
ing between  the  correspondents  will  govern  the  style  of 
the  close  of  the  letter.  Except  in  cases  where  the  writei 
is  closely  associated  with  the  correspondent,  the  words 
Yours  respectfully^  are  used  perhaps  as  frequently  as  any 
other  form,  and  will  be  proper  anywhere.  Yours  truly ^ 
Very  truly  yourSy  Sincerely  yours^  Yours  most  sincerely^  or 
Yours  most  respectfully^  are  all  in  good  form.  Do  not  omit 
the  word  Yours. 

3.  It  is  not  proper  to  abbreviate  any  word  in  the 
complimentary  close.  Abbreviations  convey  the  idea  of 
undue  haste,  and  this  is  not  consistent  with  the  courtesy 
that  should  characterize  the  close  of  a  careful  letter. 

4.  In  the  complimentary  close,  only  the  first  word 
should  be  capitalized.  A  comma  is  used  at  the  end  of  the 
line. 

The  Signature.  —  1.  The  signature  of  the  writer  should 
be  placed  one  line  below  the  complimentary  close,  and  to 
the  right  of  the  page. 

2.  It  is  important  that  the  signature  be  legible.  Often 
the  whole  purpose  of  the  letter  is  defeated  by  the  fact 
that  the  signature  cannot  be  made  out.  One  cannot  tell 
from  whom  his  letter  comes.  Even  where  money  is  in- 
closed, in  the  form  of  money  order  or  draft,  it  is  often 
impossible  to  tell  to  what  account  it  is  to  be  credited, 


The  Envelope  151 

because  of  the  difficulty  in  reading  the  signature.     Showy 
signatures,  or  those  hard  to  decipher,  are  in  poor  taste. 

3.  Where  the  writer  is  a  woman,  she  should  indicate 
whether  her  title  is  Mrs.  or  Miss.  This  is  done  by  sign- 
ing her  name  thus  :  (^Mrs.^  Mary  L,  Hay  den.  Or,  she 
may  sign  her  given  name,  and  then  at  the  left,  a  little 
below  the  body  of  the  letter,  give  her  husband's  name  and 
address  in  full,  as  Mrs.  G-eorge  W.  Sayden.  Never  use 
Mrs.  or  Miss  before  your  signature  without  a  parenthesis. 
.  4.  As  a  general  rule,  no  matter  what  the  communica- 
tion, sign  the  name  in  full,  and  always  sign  it  the  same 
way.  In  deciding  upon  a  signature,  it  will  be  safer  to 
write  one  given  name  in  full,  instead  of  two  initials,  as 
Charles  E.  Bowen^  instead  of  O.  E.  Bow  en ;  or  E.  Will 
Howard^  instead  of  E.  W.  Howard. 

The  Envelope. — 1.  The  direction  on  the  envelope, 
ordinarily  termed  the  superscription^  consists  of  the  name 
and  address  of  the  person  or  firm  to  whom  the  letter  is  to 
be  forwarded.     This  should  be  written  carefully. 

2.  The  superscription  should  be  arranged  in  three 
lines,  or  in  four  lines,  where  the  street  and  number  are 
given.  The  name  should  occupy  the  upper  line,  and 
may  be  written  with  the  same  space  at  both  the  right 
and  left  margin,  and  about  midway  between  its  upper  and 
lower  edges.     Thus, 

Mr.  William  H.  Everett, 
1745  Ninth  Street, 
Dayton, 
Ohio. 

3.  All  punctuation  may  be  omitted  on  the  envelope; 
or  a  comma  may  be  used  at  the  end  of  each  line,  '^ith  a 
period  at  the  end  of  the  last  line.  Do  not  abbreviate 
in  writing  any  part  of   the  address  upon  the  envelope. 


152 


Parts  of  a  Letter 


Special  care  should  be  taken  to  write  the  name  of  the 
state  in  full  where  confusion  may  arise  from  abbreviating 
names  like  Cah  and  Col.^  Mo.  and  ilffe.,  N,  Y.  and  N.  J. 

Prepare  a  topical  outline  covering  the  various  kinds  of 
letters,  and  how  to  write  them.  Be  ready  to  recite  from 
it. 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 

Drawing-room,  Pringle  House. 
A  home  of  culture  in  colonial  times. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Drawing-room,  Pringle  House.  —  Study  the  furnishings  of  this 
room.  The  paintings,  even  to  the  miniatures,  are  the  work  of 
great  artists.  The  full-length  portrait  of  the  young  woman 
standing,  is  by  Romney,  the  famous  English  painter. 

There  is  an  interesting  story  connected  with  the  subject  of 
this  ;Picture.  It  is  a  portrait  of  one  of  the  daughters,  Miss 
Pringle,  at  the  time  when  General  Cornwallis  occupied  the 
house.     He  notified  her  that  he  expected  to  use  whatever  grain 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  153 

and  stores  the  Pringle  plantation  afforded,  as  food  for  his  men 
and  fodder  for  his  horses,  but  that  he  would  pay  for  what  he 
used.  That  night,  under  her  instructions,  everything  that 
would  burn  was  destroyed. 

Note  also  the  chandelier,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in 
America.  There  is  but  one  other  like  it,  the  two  having  be- 
longed originally  in  the  palace  of  an  East  Indian  Rajah. 

1.  Feature  Writing.  —  Put  yourself  in  the  place  of  a  feature  writer 
for  a  newspaper,  sent  to  interview  some  member  of  the  Pringle  family 
as  to. the  legends  of  the  house.  Write  your  account  in  two  hundred 
words,  in  good  newspaper  style. 

2.  Table  Talk.  —  One  of  your  schoolmates,  a  member  of  the  fam- 
ily, has  invited  you  to  spend  a  few  days  there.  The  story  of  the 
house  comes  up  one  morning  at  breakfast.     Tell  it. 

3.  Drama.  —  Give  the  interview  between  Lord  Cornwallis  and 
Miss  Pringle  in  two  scenes.  First,  where  he  makes  known  his  wishes 
about  supplies  for  the  British  army ;  and  second,  where  the  patriotic 
young  woman  announces  what  has  happened. 

4.  Drama.  —  Write  in  simple  dramatic  ^  form  a  scene  where  the 
young  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  with  becoming  courtesy,  begs  the  young 
heroine  to  repeat,  this  story  to  General  Washington  and  himself. 
When  in  proper  shape,  superintend  the  acting  of  the  scene  by  stu- 
dents of  your  selection.     Get  the  costumes  as  they  should  be. 

5.  A  Bit  of  Pageantry.  —  Let  a  committee  write  out  the  preceding 
scene  and  present  it  in  a  high  school  pageant.  Study  the  costumes  of 
the  French  and  American  officers,  and  of  the  young  ladies  of  that  time. 

6.  The  Rajah's  Chandelier.  —  Plan  and  write  an  account  of  how 
the  Rajah's  chandelier  came  to  America.  Make  a  pirate  story  of  it,  ij 
you  choose  to  do  so. 

1  Simple  dramatization,  in  the  experience  of  many  excellent  teachers, 
promotes  efficiency  in  both  written  and  oral  expression.  Using  the  exer- 
cises given  here  and  throughout  the  book  as  suggestive,  the  ingenuity  of 
the  teacher  will  doubtless  provide  many  opportunities  for  this  unusually 
attractive  form  of  expression  in  English.  In  their  new  English  Syllabus, 
the  Board  of  Regents  of  New  York  strongly  favor  "the  construction  of 
simple  plays,  based  on  school  or  local  life,  the  portrayal  of  historic  events 
for  festival  occasions,  the  adapting  of  the  scenes  of  a  novel  to  the  dia- 
logue form  for  a  school  or  class  play,"  as  profitable  exercises  in  com' 
position. 


154  Parts  of  a  Letter 

7.  The  Boyhood  of  Raleigh.  —  Millais  has  a  famous  painting  undel 
this  title.  It  represents  two  boys  listening  to  an  old  sailor,  as  he 
tells  marvelous  tales  of  adventure.  Look  it  up  on  page  6  of  this 
book.  Tell  some  pirate  story  such  as  they  may  have  heard.  If  you 
can  outline  a  simple  class  play,  do  so. 

Plays  and  Stories 

1.  Story  Told  Orally.  — B.eier  to  O.  Henry's  story  of  The  Cha- 
parral Prince,  and  tell  it  orally  in  a  simple  and  straightforward  way. 
This  will  readily  lend  itself  to  a  class  play.     Try  it. 

2.  Another  Oral  Story.  —  Refer  to  Cotton  Mather's  account  of 
Captain  Phips  and  His  Search  for  Buried  Treasure.     Give  it  orally. 

3.  Simple  Play. —  Let  several  students  look  up  the  story  of  AH 
Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves.  Dramatize  it,  and  superintend  its  pres- 
entation before  the  class.     If  successful,  try  a  school  play. 

4.  A  Good  Story.  —  Refer  to  Bret  Harte's  story  of  Tennessee's 
Partner,  and  tell  it  in  as  few  words  as  possible. 

5.  Treasure  Trove.  —  Refer  to  Jules  Verne's  Twenty  Thousand 
Leagues  under  the  Sea,  where  they  find  vast  treasures  under  sea. 
Either  tell  it  orally,  or  make  a  simple  play  of  it. 

Q.  An  Impromptu  Play.  —  Prepare  a  simple  play  and  let  several 
pupils  play  it  before  the  class.  Use  Stevenson's  Treasure  Island^ 
where  they  dig  for  the  buried  gold  and  find  it  gone. 

7.  Oliver  Twist. — Refer  to  Dickens'  story  of  Oliver  Twist,  chap- 
ter xxii,  where  Oliver  is  shot  as  a  burglar.  Tell  the  story,  but  do  not 
attempt  to  reproduce  the  thieves'  jargon  or  slang.  Use  good  collo- 
quial English.     Give  it  orally.     Dramatize  it,  if  you  wish. 

EXERCISES  IN  LETTER-WRITING 

(a)  Business  English.  —  In  the  following  letters,  be  sure  to  apply 
not  only  the  rules  of  letter-writing,  but  the  principles  of  rhetoric. 

1.  Write  a  letter  of  application  for  a  position  you  think  you 
would  like. 

2.  Write  a  brief  business  letter,  asking  the  Adams  Express 
Company  to  trace  a  package  sent  you  recently,  which  has  not 
arrived. 

3.  Write  a  letter  of  recommendation  for  a  friend,  indicating 
his  ability  and  experience. 


Exercises  in  Letter-writing  155 

4.  Answer  an  advertisement  in  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal^ 
requesting  the  advertisers  to  send  you  their  catalogue. 

(h)  Students  Dictating  Letters.  —  This  is  to  be  an  oral  exercise. 
Several  letters  are  to  be  handed  to  each  of  a  group  of  students,  who 
are  to  read  the  letters  submitted  to  them,  and  glancing  through  them 
to  catch  the  gist  of  the  letters,  they  are  to  dictate  rapidly  hut  clearly 
the  proper  reply  in  each  case.  Enough  material  should  be  provided 
to  give  each  student  a  different  set  of  letters. 

(c)  Advertisements.  —  Try  your  hand  at  the  following  advertise- 
ments. 

1.  One  of  your  friends  lives  in  the  country  and  wir.hes  to 
hire  a  young  girl  to  act  as  domestic.  He  will  pay  good  wages. 
The  girl  will  have  the  opportunity  to  get  back  to  town  for  one 
afternoon  each  week.  He  asks  you  to  prepare  the  advertise- 
ment.    Do  so  in  fifteen  words. 

2.  Your  father  commissions  you  to  ivrite  an  advertisement 
for  a  cottage  at  Northport  Point,  Michigan.  Prepare  it  for 
the  proper  column  in  your  city  newspaper.  Give,  in  twenty- 
five  words,  as  good  a  description  as  you  can  of  the  sort  of  house 
your  father  wishes  to  purchase. 

(c?)  Notes  of  Courtesy.  —  Your  class  is  to  give  a  reception  to  which 
the  faculty  are  to  be  invited.  Study  the  latest  forms  of  tliis  style  of 
note,  and  write  the  invitation  in  about  fifty  words. 

.  (e)  Letters  of  Inquiry.  —  Write  either  or  both   of   the   following 
letters. 

1.  You  wish  to  do  your  part  in  paying  for  the  education  of 
a  boy  or  girl  in  a  "  Mountain  School ''  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Virginia,  or  North  Carolina.  Write  a  note  to  the  principal  of 
such  a  school,  asking  the  probable  expense.  Use  one  hundred 
words. 

2.  Your  class  decides  to  give  a  ride  in  the  Interurban 
"  Sjjecial,"  on  a  coming  Friday.  Prepare  a  note  to  the  super- 
intendent of  the  traction  line,  asking  terms,  indicating  date, 
stating  how  many  will  be  in  the  party,  and  asking  for  all  neces- 
sary information.     Use  sixty  words. 

(/)  "  Lost "  Notices.  —  Prepare  carefully  the  following  notes : 


156  Parts  of  a  Letter 

1.  Your  motor  boat,  moored  to  the  shore,  has  got  loose  awd 
floated  off.  Write  a  night  letter  or  telegram  of  fifty  words,  ad 
dressed  to  the  chief  of  police  of  the  next  town  down  the  river, 
describing  your  boat,  and  asking  him  to  be  on  the  lookout  for 
it,  and  indicating  the  reward  you  will  pay  for  its  return. 

2.  You  left  a  package  on  the  street  car.  Write  a  note  in 
not  more  than  fifty  words,  addressed  to  the  superintendent  of 
the  car-barn  at  the  end  of  the  line  on  which  you  were  riding. 
Give  a  description  of  the  article,  stating  the  time  of  day,  the 
date,  the  line  on  which  you  rode,  and  where  you  got  off  the 
car.  Ask  him  to  look  it  up.  Indicate  your  telephone  number, 
requesting  him  to  notify  you  in  case  he  finds  the  article  you 
have  mislaid. 

(g)  School  Notes.  —  Try  one  or  more  of  the  following  notes  about 
school  affairs. 

1.  A  girl  has  just  entered  your  high  school,  and  has  been 
assigned  to  your  class.  Your  teacher  has  requested  you  to 
explain  the  workings  of  a  program  just  announced.  As  you 
have  to  leave  early,  prepare  a  written  statement  in  about  one 
hundred  words,  trying  to  make  it  clear  just  how  your  class  is 
to  recite,  and  what  is  done  in  the  study  room. 

2.  Write  a  note  of  explanation  to  your  teacher,  indicating 
that  you  misunderstood  a  request  made  of  you,  —  or  that  a 
friend  states  was  made  of  you, — which  you  apparently  refused 
to  comply  with.     Use  thirty  words  or  less. 

3.  Open  a  correspondence  with  the  pupils  of  another  high 
school.  As  class  secretary,  write  the  first  letter  to  the  princi- 
pal of  the  school  in  question,  asking  him  to  give  it  to  the 
proper  one  in  his  school.  Request  a  reply.  Use  about  fifty 
words. 

(h)  Applications.  —  Apply  for  the  following  positions,  being  careful 
to  observe  the  directions  given  in  this  chapter.  • 

1.  You  learn  that  you  will  either  have  to  find  something 
to  do  outside  of  school  hours  to  enable  you  to  get  through, 
or  quit  high   school.      Write   a  letter  to^  the  secretai-y  of  the 


Exercises  in  Letter-writing  157 

T.  M.  C.  A.,  or  in  case  of  the  girls,  to  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  asking 
to  be  informed  of  any  opening  for  part  of  the  day,  or  evening. 
Use  seventy-five  words. 

2.  Write  a  note  to  a  friend  of  your  father,  stating  who  you 
are,  and  asking  his  advice  as  to  the  sort  of  work  you  should 
try  to  find,  to  help  you  pay  your  way  through  school.  Use 
from  fifty  to  seventy-five  words. 

3.  Wi'ite  an  application  for  a  position.  You  have  half  the 
day  to  spare,  and  can  give  all  day  Saturday,  and  Saturday 
night.  Address  your  letter  to  one  or  more  stores  that  you 
think  could  make  room  for  you.  Give  your  telephone  number 
and  home  address.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  you  have 
inclosed  a  self-addressed  envelope,  stamped,  for  reply. 

(i)  Vocational  Guidance.  —  A  group  of  boys  is  to  prepare  a  list 
of  one  hundred  words  or  terms,  relating  to  automobiles.  The  pro- 
nunciation of  these  words  is  to  be  given ;  and  their  meaning  and 
derivation  explained.  Let  a  spokesman  be  appointed  to  bring  in  the 
report.  Boys  who  run  their  own  machines,  or  the  family  "auto," 
or  who  act  as  chauffeurs  during  off  hours,  or  in  vacation,  are  to  be 
placed  on  this  committee. 

(j)  Social  Motives. —  As  this  exercise  is  intended  as  a  review  of  the 
principles  so  far  brought  out,  let  a  committee  of  three  be  selected  by 
the  class,  to  report  at  the  close  of  the  recitation.  They  are  to  criti- 
cize whatever  needs  correction,  stating  why;  and  to  indicate  what  is 
commendable,  stating  why.  This  committee  may  send  to  the  board 
such  pupils  as  they  may  indicate,  to  give  a  rapid  review  of  the  forms 
used  in  social  correspondence,  both  formal  and  informal  in  style. 

1.  One  of  the  class,  injured  in  basket  ball,  or  disabled  in 
some  way,  is  at  the  hospital,  or  sick  at  home.  Discuss  a  list 
of  topics  most  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  him  or  her.  Prepare 
a  class  letter,  touching  on  the  points  thus  chosen. 

2.  The  member  of  the  class  selected  to 'carry  this  letter,  pre- 
pares a  letter  at  the  dictation  of  the  pupil  who  receives  it,  express- 
ing his  pleasure  at  being  thus  remembered.     Write  the  letter. 

(k)  Project  in  Business  English.  —  Let  two  members  of  the  English 
class  be  appointed  as  manager?  for  the  week  that  it  will  take  to  work 


158  Parts  of  a  Letter 

out  this  plan.  For  instance,  let  one  boy  be  chosen  as  chief  clerk,  to 
have  charge  of  all  correspondence  between  the  business,  on  one  side, 
and  the  customers,  on  the  other  side.  Let  one  girl  be  chosen  as  sales 
manager,  to  be  in  charge  of  everything  connected  with  the  pushing  of 
sales,  including  the  management  of  the  salesmen  and  saleswomen; 
all  branch  houses ;  all  agents ;  and  all  business  houses  handling  the 
products  or  goods  of  the  business. 

Divide  the  class  into  two  sections;  one  to  represent  the  business 
force,  the  other  to  represent  the  customers. 

The  two  managers  will  decide  upon  what  kind  of  business  to 
engage  in.  The  following  lines  are  suggested  :  a  wholesale  grocery ; 
a  wholesale  hardware  company ;  a  department  store ;  a  manufacturing 
concern;  a  mail-order  business.  The  managers  are  also  to  indicate 
to  the  rest  of  the  class  the  nature  of  the  letters  required.  They  may 
go  into  details  about  the  business,  but  not  in  such  a  way  as  to  break 
in  on  the  initiative  of  the  writers.  In  no  case  are  they  to  dictate 
the  letters.  They  may  appoint  one  student  to  advise  the  customers 
what  sort  of  orders  to  make,  letters  to  write,  payments  to  make,  credits 
to  ask  for,  and  anything  else  that  may  concern  the  customers  in  their 
dealing  with  the  business.  All  suggestions  to  the  customers  should 
go  from  the  managers  through  this  student.  But  he  is  also  to  use  his 
own  judgment,  without  waiting  for  suggestions. 

All  letters  for  that  day  are  to  be  submitted  to  the  managers  in 
proper  form,  neatly  written,  and  acceptable  in  all  details.  All  letters 
received  the  day  before,  or  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  are  to  be 
answered  promptly,  and  submitted  at  the  close  of  the  day,  if  not  be- 
fore that  time. 

Note  the  following  suggestive  list  of  letters.  The  managers, 
however,  are  to  decide  what  to  do.  (1)  General  correspond- 
ence ;  (2)  sales  letter-writing ;  (3)  advertisement  writing ; 
(4)  report  writing ;  (5)  specifications ;  (6)  inventories  and 
price  lists ;  (7)  collections ;  (8)  sales  letters  to  agents ; 
(9)  circular  letters ;  (10)  replying  to  business  inquiries,  com- 
plaints, etc.,  and  the  preparation  of  follow-up  letters. 

(/)  Advertisement  Writing.  —  Refer  to  some  fivp  or  six  magazines, 
"best  sellers,"  and  study  the  full-page  advertisements  found  there. 
Let  five  boys  choose  one  article  to  be  advertised  by  them,  and  let  five 
girls  choose  another.      Each  group  is  to  prepare  an  "ad"  for  the 


Exercises  in  Letter-writing  159 

selected  article.  As  nearly  as  possible,  the  copy  of  the  advertisement 
prepared  by  the  students  of  each  group  is  to  look  as  it  will  in  the 
magazine.  In  order  to  do  this,  they  may  clip  both  illustrations  and 
type  from  any  available  sources,  pasting  in  this  matter.  This  can  be 
made  effective,  if  pains  are  taken. 

(m)  Class  Letter.  —  Let  each  member  of  the  class  write  a  letter 
containing  the  description  of  a  hard-fought  snowball  battle.  These 
letters  are  to  be  submitted  to  a  committee  of  three  who  are  to  select 
the  three  letters  that  in  their  judgment  bring  out  the  most  interesting 
points.  Let  these  be  read  aloud,  and  let  the  class  compose  a  descrip- 
tive letter  to  some  English  class  in  a  city  where  they  are  unused  to 
snow.  Ask  a  letter  in  return,  describing  something  familiar  to  them, 
but  which  would  seem  new  to  you.  Make  the  letter  as  nearly  perfect 
as  you  can  before  mailing  it.  Address  it  to  the  instructor  in  English, 
care  of  the  high  school  in  the  city  decided  upon. 

(n)  Business  Letters.  Opening  Sentences.  —  In  the  opening  sentence 
of  a  letter  replying  to  a  business  letter,  he  careful  to  refer  definitely  to 
the  date  and  contents  of  the  letter  to  which  you  are  replying.  For  this 
purpose,  let  several  brief  business  letters  be  read  aloud,  or  written 
upon  the  blackboard.  Let  the  class  write  letters  in  reply,  and  give 
in  the  opening  sentence  the  substance  of  the  letter  to  be  answered. 

(o)  Long  Themes  in  Form  of  Letters.  —  Let  the  class  prepare  a  long 
theme  on  some  selected  topic.  Put  it  in  the  form  of  a  letter,  and 
inclose  it  in  an  envelope  properly  addressed  to  the  residence  of  your 
instructor  in  English.     Use  official  envelopes,  and  fold  correctly. 

(jo)  Both  Sides  of  a  Correspondence.  —  Take  both  attitudes,  that  of 
a  customer  and  of  the  representative  of  some  large  business  house 
advertising  a  staple  article.  Clip  the  advertisement  from  one  of  the 
leading  magazines.  Write  a  letter  of  inquiry,  as  from  a  prospec- 
tive purchaser,  in  response  to  the  advertisement.  Write  in  reply, 
stating  terms,  description,  arguments  for  the  purchase,  and  whatever 
else  may  seem  advisable.     Make  both  strictly  business  letters. 

(q)  Talk  on  Letters.  —  Prepare  a  five-minute  talk  on  letter-writing, 
and  proper  form  in  letters  and  notes.  Discuss  appropriate  headings, 
salutations,  conclusions,  signatures,  and  superscriptions.  Speak  also 
of  good  taste  in  the  choice  of  stationery  and  ink.  Use  the  black- 
board.    If  possible,  submit  sample  letters,  correctly  written. 

(r)  Address  by  a  Trained  Writer.  —  Let  a  competent  business  ste- 
nographer or  private  secretary  address  the  class  on  "  Up-to-date  Re* 
quirements  of  Forra  m  Letter  Writing.'* 


160 


Parts  of  a  Letter 


An  Aqueduct 
A  Mexican  water  carrier. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Mexican  Water  Carrier.  —  Imagine  having  to  depend  upon 
this  sort  of  service  for  your  water  supply  in  these  days  of  water 
works,  of  artesian  wells,  and  of  irrigation.  Under  what  condi- 
tions do  people  live  who  are  satisfied  with  a  supply  system  like 
this  ? 

Think  a  little,  look  up  information,  and  write  an  article  on  "  Un- 
usual Sources  of  Water  Supply." 

Aqueducts  in  Old  Mexico.  —  When  the  Spaniards  came  to  Mexico, 
they  found  an  elaborate  system  of  aqueducts,  some  of  which  are  still 
in  use.    Look  this  up,  and  write  a  paper  on  it,  if  it  interests  you. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
KINDS  OF  LETTERS 


Let  your  letter  he  written  as  accurately  as  possible. — Chesterfield. 


I.    Business   Lettkrs 

Business  Requirements.  —  The  first  requisite  of  a  busi- 
ness letter  is  accuracy.  The  writer  should  be  sure  of  his 
facts,  and  he  must  say  what  he  means.  The  second  item 
of  importance  is  that  of  neatness  and  legibility.  The  let- 
ter should  be  clear,  clean,  and  well  written.  Then  the 
letter  should  be  concise.  The  writer  should  express  him- 
self in  as  few  words  as  possible,  consistent  with  a  clear- 
ness that  will  render  his  meaning  unmistakable. 

The  recipient  of  the  letter  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  act 
promptly  on  the  information  this  letter  contains.  If  for 
a  full  understanding  of  the  letter  it  is  necessary  to  refer 
to  certain  previous  letters,  the  letter  should  cite  them. 
Lastly,  the  letter  should  be  courteous  in  tone. 

Clear  Statement.  —  In  making  your  statement  of  facts, 
you  should  endeavor  to  make  each  fact  stand  out  by  itself 
so  as  to  catch  the  reader's  attention  at  a  glance.  If  any 
explanation  is  necessary,  make  it  item  by  item.  Clear  up 
one  point  before  touching  upon  the  next.  Postscripts  are 
out  of  place  in  business  letters. 

In  urging  any  special  consideration  designed  to  influ- 
ence your  reader's  mind,  try  to  put  yourself  in  his  place, 
and  when  you  have  finished  your  letter,  read  it  over  to 

161 


16^  Kinds  of  Letters 

see  whether  you  have  clearly  stated  your  points.  If  not, 
do  not  hesitate  to  recast  your  letter. 

In  important  letters,  it  may  often  be  advisable  to  make 
a  first  draft  of  your  letter  and  then  to  recast  it,  asking 
yourself  the  question  whether  your  letter  says  just  what 
you  mean  or  not. 

It  is  best  to  avoid  undue  brevity.  The  so-called  tele- 
graphic style,  where  the  pronouns  and  the  less  important 
particles  and  connectives  are  omitted,  is  not  permissible  in 
business  correspondence.  This  applies  even  to  what  are 
termed  "  day  or  night  letters,"  that  is,  telegrams  of  fifty 
words  or  less,  which  are  wired  at  reduced  rates,  and  which 
are  now  much  in  use.  A  good  business  writer  should.be  able 
to  make  almost  any  transaction  clear  in  fifty  words.  If  not, 
he  should  not  hesitate  to  use  words  enough  for  his  purpose. 

Business  Answers.  —  In  answering  a  business  letter, 
first  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  correspondent's 
letter,  giving  its  date,  and,  in  case  of  a  large  business 
house  or  corporation,  its  file  number.  At  the  same  time, 
acknowledge  the  check,  receipt,  bill  of  lading,  or  other 
inclosure  or  inclosures,  by  saying,  "with  inclosure  as 
stated,"  or  by  naming  the  inclosures. 

It  may  be  wise  to  restate  briefly  the  letter  to  which 
you  are  replying,  after  which  you  may  deal  with  it  point 
by  point.  This  will  facilitate  matters,  especially  if  your 
letters  should  be  referred  to  some  one  who  has  not  seen 
the  previous  correspondence-  If  questions  have  been 
asked  in  the  letter  to  which  you  are  replying,  these  should 
be  answered  definitely  and  clearly. 

Business  letters  should  be  answered  at  once,  if  possible. 
Otherwise,  a  brief  letter  of  acknowledgment  promising  an 
immediate  reply  should  be  sent. 

Business  "Don*ts."  —  Never  seal  a  business  letter  with- 
out rereading  it. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


163 


Never  hesitate  to  rewrite  a  letter,  if  after  reading  it  over 
you  think  that  it  fails  to  say  exactly  and  unmistakably 
what  you  intended  it  to  say. 

Never  let  a  letter  leave  your  desk  that  is  lacking  in 
courtesy,  or  that  savors  of  disrespect. 


Paradise  Road  and  Mt.  Rainier. 
Mt.  Rainier  National  Park. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Paradise  Road  and  Mt.  Rainier.  —  There  is  a  certain  joy  of 
living  felt  in  the  open  air,  especially  in  the  mountains,  and  on 
horseback.     The  writer,  Mary  Eoberts  Rinehart,  is  shown  at 


164  Kinds  of  Letters 

the  right  of  the  picture.  Two  mountain  peaks  appear,  the 
snow-covered  one  being  Mt.  Eainier,  which  is  worth  crossing  a 
continent  to  see. 

Describe  this  party,  as  if  you  were  a  member  of  it. 

Mt.  Rainier  National  Park.  —  If  your  high  school  library  possesses 
a  copy  of  the  Portfolio  of  National  Parks,  issued  by  the  Department  of 
the  Interior,  from  which  this  picture  is  taken,  refer  to  it  and  write  a 
description  of  this  or  some  other  Park  belonging  to  the  nation.  Put 
it  in  letter  form. 

II.     Social  Letters 

Invitations  and  Replies.  —  Invitations  and  replies  are 
either  formal  or  informal.  For  ordinary  events,  informal 
invitations  are  given,  and  in  such  cases  the  style  does  not 
differ  from  that  of  any  friendly  letter.  Formal  invita- 
tions are  proper  where  the  entertainment  is  a  little  out  of 
the  ordinary.  The  reply  should  follow  the  style  of  the 
invitation.  That  is,  a  formal  reply  should  he  returned  to  a 
formal  invitation. 

In  every  case  where  an  invitation  in  writing  is  received, 
there  should  be  a  written  reply,  promptly  mailed  or  sent. 
The  host  or  hostess  cannot  make  final  and  satisfactory 
arrangements  for  the  proposed  entertainment,  no  matter 
what  its  nature  may  be,  until  the  invited  guests  are  heard 
from.  It  is  not  only  impolite,  but  unkind,  to  delay  writing 
either  an  acceptance  or  a  note  of  regret. 

Formal  Invitations.  —  When  a  formal  invitation  is  writ- 
ten, it  is  in  the  third  person,  and  this  style  should  be 
maintained  throughout.  It  has  no  heading,  no  date  line, 
and  no  complimentary  conclusion  or  signature.  The  date 
and  the  name  of  the  person  addressed  as  well  as  the  name 
of  the  writer,  are  given  in  the  body  of  the  note.  The  day 
of  the  week,  and  of  the  month,  are  written  out  in  full. 

Formal  invitations,  whether  written  or  engraved,  may 
be  and  generally  are,  arranged  in  lines,  or  displayed.,  as  it 


Written  Invitations  165 

is  called.  That  is,  the  lines  are  not  necessarily  of  equal 
length,  but  the  margins  at  the  right  and  left  of  each  line 
are  equal.  Reference  to  the  example  given  below  will  ex- 
plain what  is  meant  by  displaying  the  lines.  Formal  replies 
do  not  follow  this  arrangement. 

Written  Invitations.  —  The  following  is  a  written  invita- 
tion in  formal  style.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  lines  are 
displayed. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ellison 

request  the  pleasure  of 

Mr.  Dalray's 

company  at  diimer 

on  Thursday,  February  thirteenth, 

at  seven  o'clock. 

145  Highland  Avenue. 

In  accepting  this  invitation,  the  following  reply  would 
be  in  good  form. 

Mr.  Dalray  takes  pleasure  in  accepting  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Elli- 
son's kind  invitation  to  dinner  on  Thursday,  February  thir- 
teenth, at  seven  o'clock. 

To  Mrs.  W.  H.  Ellison, 
145  Highland  Avenue. 

The  address  of  the  hostess  may  be  omitted  in  this  formal 
reply. 

Engraved  Invitations. — When  the  invitation  is  engraved, 
it  is  always  formal  in  style,  and  is  in  the  second  person. 
That  is,  instead  of  the  third  line  in  the  above  formal  invi- 
tation reading  Mr.  Dalrays^  it  would  read  your, 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ellison 

request  the  pleasure  of 

your 

company,  etc.,  etc. 


166  Kinds  of  Letters 

To  this  invitation,  a  correct  reply  may  be  given  in  the 
form  indicated  below. 

Mr.  Dalray  takes  pleasure  in  accepting  your  invitation  to  be 
present  at  dinner  on  the  occasion  of  your  fifth  anniversary, 
Wednesday,  September  ninth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

To  Mrs.  W.  H.  Ellison, 
145  Highland  Avenue. 

In  case  of  a  letter  of  regret,  the  only  change  would  be 
in  the  first  line,  which  would  begin  thus, 

Mr,  Dalray  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  prevents  his 
acceptance  of  your  invitation,  etc. 

Invitations  issued  by  societies  and  classes  should  indi- 
cate to  whom  the  reply,  accepting  or  declining  the  invita- 
tion, is  to  be  sent. 

The  Junior  Class 

takes  pleasure  in  inviting  the 

Senior  Class  and  the  Members  of  the  Faculty 

to  a  reception  and  dance 

at  the  Auditorium  of  the  High  School,  Wednesday  Night, 

June  third,  from  8  to  IL 

Address  reply  to 
Anna  E.  Singleton,  Secretary, 
Lincoln  High  School. 

The  following  replies,  one  of  acceptance,  the  other  con- 
veying regrets,  would  be  suitable  answers  to  the  above. 

The  Senior  Class  appreciates  the  courtesy  shown  by  the 
Junior  Class,  and  accepts  its  invitation  to  a  reception  and 
dance  for  Wednesday  Night,  June  third. 

George  K.  Pohlman,  Secretary, 
Senior  Class,  L.  H.  S. 

To  Miss  Anna  E.  Singleton,  Secretary. 


Informal  Invitations  167 

Miss  Anna  B.  Singleton,  Secretary, 
Junior  Class,  L.  H.  S. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Senior  Trolley  Bide  is  set  for  the 
date  named  for  the  reception  and  dance,  the  Senior  Class  is 
obliged  to  decline  your  kind  invitation  for  Wednesday  Night, 
June  third. 

George  K.  Pohlman,  Secretary, 

Senior  Class,  L.  H.  S. 

Informal  Invitations  and  Replies.  —  Individual  taste 
dictates  the  form  of  these  notes  and  replies.  This  will  be 
seen  in  the  examples  given  below. 


615  Kosedale  Place 


Saturday  Morning. 
Dear  Charles :  — 

If  you  are  free  to  accept  an  invitation  for  this  after- 
noon, Mrs.  Wagner  and  I  would  be  very  glad  to  have  you  with  us 
in  a  little  auto  party  out  to  the  Fort.  We  shall  take  luncheon 
with  us,  and  I  know  you  will  enjoy  the  trip.     Be  ready  at  two. 

Very  cordially  yours, 

William  S.  Wagner. 

My  dear  Wagner : 

I. shall  be  more  than  glad  to  be  one  of  your  delight- 
ful party  for  this  afternoon,  and  shall  be  ready  at  the  hour 
named. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Charles  Adams  Yates. 

Dear  Will, 

Mighty  sorry  to  miss  the  pleasant  party  I  am  sure 
you  will  have  at  the  Fort,  but  as  I  leave  for  Chicago  at  six  this 
evening,  and  have  some  important  work  in  hand,  I  shall  not 
be  able  to  be  with  you. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Charles  Adams  Yates. 


168  Kinds  of  Letters 

My  dear  Mrs.  Sanders : 

How  about  Thursday  afternoon  for  a  little  theater 
party  in  honor  of  your  guest,  Miss  Smith  ?  If  you  and  she 
are  at  liberty,  I  shall  take  pleasure  in  making  the  necessary 
arrangements,  and  for  a  luncheon  at  Huyler's  later. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Marie  Bronte. 
909  Fountain  Place, 
June  the  sixth. 

My  dear  Miss  Bronte  : 

I  thank  you  very  much  for  your  kind  thought- 
fulness  for  my  guest.  Miss  Smith  and  I  are  delighted  to  set 
,aside  Thursday  afternoon  as  you  suggest. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Julia  Sanders. 

My  dear  Miss  Bronte : 

I  regret  very  much  that  Miss  Smith  and  I  cannot 
be  your  guests  for  Thursday  afternoon.  We  have  already 
accepted  an  invitation  for  that  time.  Thanking  you  for  your 
invitation,  I  am, 

Sincerely  yours, 
Julia  Sanders. 
313  Riverview  Eoad, 
June  sixth. 

My  dear  Miss  Bronte : 

I  regret  that  a  previous  engagement  on  the  part  of 
Miss  Smith  makes  it  impossible  for  us  to  accept  your  kind  in- 
vitation for  next  Thursday  afternoon. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Julia  Sanders. 
313  Riverview  Road, 
June  sixth. 


Review  Exercises  in  Letter-writing        169 

REVIEW  EXERCISES  IN  LETTER-WRITING 

In  writing  the  following  exercises,  keep  in  mind  the  instruc- 
tions heretofore  given  as  to  the  form  and  details  of  letters. 

(a)  Writing  addresses,  salutations,  and  the  complimentary  close.  Give 
the  address,  salutation,  and  the  complimentary  close  for  a  letter  to 
each  of  the  following.    If  possible,  use  the  real  name  and  address. 

1.  The  mayor  of  your  city.     Your  congressman. 
The  superintendent  of  schools  in  your  city,  or 
The  county  superintendent  of  schools. 

Your  instructor  in  English,  giving  home  address. 
The  minister  of  your  church. 

2.  A  captain  in  the  U.  S.  army,  stationed  at  San  Francisco. 
A  confectionery  firm,  composed  of  two  women. 

The  clerk  of  the  county  court. 

The  judge  of  your  circuit  court,  or  of  your  probate  court. 

(&)   Write  an  order  for  one  or  more  of  the  following : 

1.  A  complete  outfit  and  uniforms  for  your  high  school 
football  eleven.  The  athletic  association  of  your  high  school 
is  to  pay  the  bills.  You  are  authorized  as  secretary  to  make 
the  purchase. 

2.  An  itemized  list  of  supplies  for  your  "class  night" 
entertainment.  You  act  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
arrangements. 

3.  An  outfit  for  the  public  playground  on  your  high  school 
grounds.  You  act  as  member  of  the  committee  on  playground, 
of  the  high  school  Mothers  and  Teachers  Clubj  which  includes 
some  members  of  the  high  school. 

^(c)  Write  the  postmaster  a  letter  of  less  than  one  hundred  words, 
asking  him  to  trace  a  package  sent  by  parcel  post  on  the  21st  of 
December,  indicating  your  own  address  and  the  name  and  address  of 
the  person  to  whom  it  was  sent. 

(d)  Write  the  agent  of  the  railroad  passing  through  your  city,  asking 
him  to  trace  a  carload  shipment  of  furniture  over  his  road.  It  was 
sent  thirty  days  ago,  and  nothing  has  since  been  heard  of  it,  although 


170  Kinds  of  Letters 

inquiry  has  been  made  at  his  office.  Give  name  and  address  of  con- 
signee, or  person  to  whom  sent,  also  place  from  which  it  was  sent, 
date  of  shipment,  and  address  of  shipper.  Shipment  consisted  of 
household  goods.  Family  unable  to  go  to  housekeeping,  although 
house  has  been  rented.  Give  your  own  name  and  address,  and 
telephone  number. 

(e)  Letter  of  Complaint.  In  thfe  following,  be  sure  to  write 
courteously. 

1.  Tour  dass  ordered  a  bill  of  chemicals  for  use  in  the 
laboratory.  It  has  not  arrived.  Address  your  letter  to  dealer 
in  laboratory  supplies  in  New  York  or  Chicago.  Get  exact 
address  from  teacher  of  physics  or  chemistry. 

2.  Tour  telephone,  which  was  to  be  installed  at  your  father's 
residence  two  weeks  ago,  has  not  yet  been  put  in.  Give  exact 
address. 

(/)  Replies  to  Complaints.  —  Make  the  following  as  polite  as  possible. 

1.  Write  the  letter  from  the  laboratory  supply  house  in  reply  to 
your  complaint.  They  have  been  waiting  for  part  of  supplies, 
but  will  forward  what  they  have  been  able  to  secure.  Trust 
this  will  be  satisfactory. 

2.  Write  reply  from  the  telephone  company.  Their  repre- 
sentative has  called  twice,  giving  dates,  and  found  no  one  at 
home.  Ask  you  to  indicate  when  some  one  will  be  at  residence, 
and  at  what  hour  of  the  morning  or  afternoon. 

(g)  Reserving  a  Pullman  Berth. 

1.  Your  mother  is  to  go  from  your  city  to  New  York,  or  to 
Montreal.  Write  to  the  Pullman  Co.,  for  reservation  of  lower 
berth,  on  train  leaving  at  8  p.  m.,  to-morrow.     Name  railroad. 

2.  Wire  the  Pullman  Co.,  countermanding  your  reservaticm. 

(A)   Ordering  from  a  Mail-order  House. 

1.  Write  a  letter  from  Mrs.  W.  H.  Jones,  to  some  firm  in 
Chicago,  ordering  five  or  more  items  in  large  amounts.  She 
incloses  check,  made  out  from  catalogue  quotations,  and  gives 
her  address  in  full. 


Review  Exercises  in  Letter-writing        171 

2.  Write,  cancelling  one  item  of  the  order  just  given. 

3.  Write,  representing  the  mail-order  department  of  the  above 
firm,  acknowledging  receipt  of  order  from  Mrs.  W.  H.  Jones, 
and  check  in  payment  for  the  order.  Also,  acknowledge  can- 
cellation of  one  item.  Ask  what  disposition  to  make  of  the 
balance  of  the  check  sent,  on  account  of  cancellation.  Say- 
that  you  will  return  this  balance,  unless  word  to  the  contrary 
is  received  within  five  days. 

(/)  Interscholastic  Letter-ivriting  Contest. 

1.  Let  some  four  or  five  high  schools  be  asked  to  participate 
in  a  letter-writing  contest.  As  class  secretary,  write  a  letter  to 
each  high  school,  inviting  it  to  take  part. 

2.  Points  of  the  contest.  Five  letters  in  all :  one,  at  dictor 
Hon,  to  be  written  exactly  as  given  out.  One,  to  be  written  by 
the  students  after  taking  down  the  substance  of  the  letter,  and  then 
putting  it  in  their  own  words.  A  third,  to  be  the  answer  to  a 
business  letter  which  is  to  be  written  on  the  board.  A  fourth, 
a  sales  letter,  setting  forth  the  advantages  of  any  article  the 
pupil  may  choose.  The  fifth  letter  may  be  a  form  letter,  in 
the  follow-up  style,  to  a  prospective  customer  who  has  written 
to  the  house  in  answer  to  an  advertisement. 

(/)  Answering  a  Letter  Written  in  Class.  —  Take  any  letter  written 
by  a  member  of  your  class,  and  answer  it. 

{k)  Confirming  a  Telephone  Conversation. 

1.  You  are  chief  clerk  of  a  wholesale  coal  company.  A 
customer  has  called  up  over  the  long  distance  telephone,  giving 
an  order  for  a  carload  of  coal  each  week  for  the  next  two 
months,  at  rate  quoted  in  your  letter  of  the  1st  of  this  month. 
Write  a  letter  confirming  the  conversation,  and  promising  to  fill 
the  order  satisfactorily. 

2.  Write  a  letter  of  one  hundred  words  ;  a  night  letter  of  fifty 
words  ;  and  a  telegram  ofteii  to  fifteen  words,  to  three  different 
addresses,  confirming  some  such  conversation  as  the  above. 
Let  these  three  messages  all  convey  about  the  same  meaning. 


172  Kinds  of  Letters 

(/)  Write  an  informal  letter,  asking  a  friend  to  join  a  fishing  party; 
and  telling  him  what  to  bring  for  lunch. 

(m)  Acknowledge  a  birthday  present  from  a  relative  at  a  distance. 

(n)  Miscellaneous.  —  In  the  following  exercises  try  to  apply  all 
you  have  learned  in  regard  to  letter-writing. 

1.  Your  brother  broke  a  window  by  accident.  Write  a 
brief  note  explaining  the  circumstances,  and  inclosing  check  for 
one  dollar  to  cover  cost  of  replacing. 

2.  Write  a  letter  urging  the  purchase  of  one  of  the  following 
articles : 

A  vacuum  cleaner ;  a  fireless  cooker ;  an  electric  iron ;  a 
stationary  gas  engine  for  a  farm. 

3.  Prepare  ten-word  telegrams  for  five  different  purposes. 

4.  Write  forty  to  sixty  words  each  covering  the  same  circum- 
stances or  purposes. 

5.  Write  out  an  application  for  the  installation  of  a  telephone. 

6.  Clip  a  ^^ help-wanted^^  advertisement.  Answer  it,  apply- 
ing for  the  position. 

7.  Write  out  a  notice  for  your  class  bulletin  board. 

8.  You  need  a  letter  of  recommendation.  Write  the  principal 
of  your  high  school  for  it. 

Testing  for  Some  One  Point.  —  The  permanent  editorial 
committee  may  desire  to  test  the  English  class  on  some  one 
point  in  composition  work.  Let  it  be  clearness  of  expres- 
sion, care  in  preparation  of  manuscripts,  spelling,  the 
structure  of  sentences,  or  whatever  may  be  deemed  best 
to  consider  at  any  special  time.  In  such  case,  it  is  wise 
to  put  everything  else  aside  for  the  time,  and  counseling 
with  the  instructor  in  English,  to  make  due  and  careful 
inquiry  of  the  entire  class  on  whatever  point  it  is  thus 
decided  to  investigate. 

Make  such  an  inquiry,  without  announcement  of  your 
purpose,  and  with  no  effort  to  mark  it  as  a  test.  What  is 
wanted  is  the  judgment  of  the  editorial  committee,  and 
based  on  this  judgment,  the  decision  of  the  instructor  in 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


173 


English  on  the  status  of  the  class  in  some  important  phase 
of  its  work.  The  question  is,  What  weakness,  or  what 
special  strength,  has  this  class  with  reference  to  spelling, 
sentence  structure,  or  the  preparation  of  manuscripts  ? 


Gates  of  St.  Augustine. 
In  the  oldest  city  of  the  United  States. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  Gates  of  St.  Augustine.  —  The  gateway  here  shown  is  part  of 
the  old  wall  that  once  surrounded  St.  Augustine,  Florida.  In  the  pic- 
ture, three  civilizations  show.  The  gates  themselves  represent  the  old 
Spanish  rule  in  Florida.  The  stooping  figure  of  the  old  colored  man  at 
the  right  is  a  relic  of  slavery  days;  while  above  the  gateway  the 
telephone  and  telegraph  wires  and  the  electric  light  tell  of  the  present. 
The  frown  of  the  cannon,  let  us  hope,  is  but  a  tradition  of  the  past. 


174  Kinds  of  Letters 

1.  Study  the  picture,  and  describe  it. 

2.  St.  Augustine.—  Refresh  your  memory,  if  necessary,  and 
tell  the  story  of  the  establishment  of  the  first  permanent  settle- 
ment in  the  United  States  at  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  in  1565. 
How  did  this  Spanish  settlement  fare  ?  Write  a  short  letter, 
telling  a  friend  about  it. 

3.  St.  Augustine  To-day.  —  Do  you  live  in  Florida,  or  have 
you  visited  St.  Augustine  ?  If  so,  write  the  class  a  letter  about 
it.  Talk  with  some  one  who  knows  The  Gates,  and  let  the 
class  hear  what  he  says. 

4.  Where  Have  You  Visited  ?  —  Have  you  inspected  some 
old  Mound  Builders  ruins  ?  Have  you  seen  the  Pueblas  in  the 
West  ?  Have  you  made  an  automoble  trip  to  one  of  the  many 
Indian  battle  iields  in  Ohio  or  Indiana  ?  Have  you  gone  to 
Big  Bone  Springs,  the  grave  of  the  mammoths,  in  Boone 
County,  Kentucky,  or  to  Mammoth  Cave  ?  or  Manitou  Springs, 
Colorado?  Have  you  not  visited  somewhere?  Write  one  of 
your  classmates  a  letter  about  it.  Or  describe  your  own  town,  as 
if  visiting  it. 

5.  Santa  F4,  and  the  Missions.  —  Have  you  seen  Santa  Fe, 
founded  seventeen  years  later  than  St.  Augustine?  Perhaps 
you  were  one  of  a  party  visiting  the  Missions.  Write  your 
chum  a  letter  about  it.  Any  experiences  in  New  Mexico  or 
California  are  worth  telling. 

6.  The  Old  Stone  Mill  at  Newport.  —  Longfellow  celebrates 
this  old  ruin  in  his  Skeleton  in  Armor.  Have  you  se'en  the 
tower  ?     If  so,  write  your  brother  a  letter  about  it. 

7.  Fort  Pitt,  Pittsburg. — It  is  there  to  be  seen,  if  you  search 
for  it.  If  you  have  looked  it  up,  write  your  history  teacher  a 
letter  about  it. 

8.  In  your  own  neighborhood. —  There  is  some  spot  in  every 
neighborhood  to  which  interest  attaches.     Tell  about  it. 

9.  An  Imaginary  Visit.  —  Look  through  the  pictures  in 
this  book.  Think  out  a  visit  to  some  place  or  building,  and 
tell  about  it. 

10.    Where   Would   You  Like  to   Visit  f  —  Have  you  often 
thought  of  visiting  some  place  ?     Tell  why  you  would  like  it 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


175 


Winners  in  Contest  at  the  Reindeer  Fair 


Alaska.  "Winners  of  Contests.  —  In  this  picture  a  group  of 
successful  contestants  all  seem  very  proud  of  their  new  hunting- 
knives,  which  were  the  prizes  awarded  in  one  of  the  contests.  They 
are  seated  on  a  reindeer  sled.  Tell  the  story  of  a  contest  occurring 
at  the  Igloo  Fair,  as  if  overheard  from  the  lips  of  one  of  this  group. 

The  contests  at  the  reindeer  fairs  include  everything  that 
affects  in  any  way  the  reindeer  industry.  The  packing  of  sleds 
for  long  journeys  ;  the  best  styles  of  sleds  and  harness ;  races 
of  all  kinds  ;  the  lassoing  of  the  wild  reindeer  from  the  herd 
for  the  purposes  of  slaughtering,  or  of  breaking  the  sled  rein- 
deer. In  the  wild  deer  races,  the  contestants  may  drag  their 
deer  all  the  way,  if  they  will  not  go  otherwise,  and  all  sorts 
of  comical  happenings  occur.  The  Eskimos  have  a  quick 
sense  of  humor,  and  appreciate  any  ludicrous  situation. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SOCIAL  MOTIVES   IN   EFFECTIVE    ENGLISH 


Let  such  pageantry  he  to  the  people  shown.  — Dryden. 


Pageantry  as  a  High  School  Project.  —  A  high  school 
project  that  is  rich  in  motives  for  composition,  and  will 
quicken  the  pulse  of  the  school  in  every  department,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  presentation  of  a  pageant.^ 

In  undertaking  this,  the  high  school  may  decide  on  the 
pageant  proper,  —  what  is  called  the  community  drama; 
or  it  may  confine  its  effort  to  some  form  of  pageantry 
belonging  peculiarly  to  the  high  school. 

What  is  Pageantry?  —  Pageantry  is  history  come  to 
life  again  upon  its  native  soil.  To  quote  the  definition 
given  by  William  C.  Langdon  in  the  English  Journal,  it 
is  the  drama  of  a  community  in  which  the  place  is  the  hero, 
and  its  history  is  the  plot. 

Famous  Pageants.  —  In  this  sense  the  Durbar  in  India, 
celebrating  the  enthroning  of  King  George  V  of  England 
as  Emperor  of  India,  was  not  a  pageant.     On  the  other 

1  The  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  calls  attention 
to  "the  portrayal  of  historic  events  for  festival  occasions"  as  among 
what  it  considers  profitable  exercises  in  English.  The  State  Board  of 
New  Jersey,  in  The  Teaching  of  High  School  English,  speaking  of  "re- 
vivals of  historic  scenes,  reproductions  of  celebrated  events,  pageants, 
tableau  representations  of  crucial  instances  in  national  and  literary  his- 
tory, or  contrasts  in  ancient  and  modern  conditions,"  says,  "Let  the 
teachers  cooperate  with  the  pupils  ;  let  the  music,  art,  and  manual  train- 
ing departments  lend  a  hand.  ...    It  takes  work,  but  it  is  worth  it." 

176 


Famous  Pageants  177 

hand,  the  Pageant  of  the  Army^  held  in  1910  at  Fulham 
Palace,  London,  for  the  benefit  of  the  nation's  invalided 
soldiers,  and  commemorating  the  deeds  of  the  British 
army  from  the  earliest  history  of  Great  Britain  down  to 
the  present  time,  was  a  fine  example  of  modern  pageantry. 

The  Tercentenary  Pageant  of  Quebec,  in  1908,  celebrat- 
ing the  three  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  founding  of 
that  city,  was  a  true  pageant.  The  Oxford  Historical 
Pageant^  held  in  1907  at  Oxford,  England,  and  the  Pageant 
of  London^  in  1911,  both  arranged  by  Frank  Lascelles,  who 
had  charge  of  the  Quebec  Tercentenary^  are  noteworthy  ex- 
amples of  pageantry  abroad. 

The  Saint  Louis  Pageant  arid  Masque^  1914,  the  Cham- 
plain  Celebration^  on  Lake  Champlain,  the  Boston  Pageant^ 
the  Pageant  of  Philadelphia^  the  Pageant  of  the  MeltiTig 
Pot^  1914,  in  New  York  City,  given  by  the  Drama  League 
of  America,  the  Pageant  of  Portola^  and  the  Golden  Legend 
of  California^  the  one  at  San  Francisco  and  the  other  at 
Los  Angeles,  are  all  worth  studying.  Percy  Mackaye's 
Caliban^  with  five  thousand  people  in  the  cast,  was  given 
in  the  Harvard  Stadium  in  1917. 

As  examples  of  what  universities  are  doing  in  pageantry, 
the  Joan  of  Arc  Pageant  at  Cambridge,  produced  by  Har- 
vard students,  and  the  Pageant  of  the  North  WesU  pre- 
sented by  students  of  the  North  Dakota  University,  at 
Grand  Forks,  North  Dakota,  are  notable. . 

The  State  Normal  School  at  Clarion,  Pa.,  has  given  a 
series  of  annual  pageants,  among  which  were  In  ye  Olden 
Times^  portraying  the  Colonial  era  ;  a  Plantation  Holiday^ 
showing  life  in  Dixie  ;  A  Roman  Holiday^  and  Ivanhoe^ 
based  on  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  of  that  name,  and  intro- 
ducing terds  and  ladies,  yeomen  and  villagers,  Knight- 
Templars,  and  Robin  Hood  and  his  Merry  Men.  Look  up 
also  the  Lexington^  Massachusetts^  Pageant^  given  in  1915. 


178  Pageantry 

Different  from  all  so  far  named  was  the  Pageant  of  the 
Odyssey^  given  in  1913,  at  Millbury,  Massachusetts.  In 
the  way  of  musical  pageants  may  be  named  the  Pageant  of 
Hiawatha^  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  and  the  MacDowell 
Pageant^  at  Peterborough,  New  Hampshire. 

School  Pageants.  —  An  excellent  example  of  a  public 
school  pageant  by  a  small  school  in  a  rural  community  is 
afforded  by  the  Historical  Pageant  at  New  Harmony, 
Indiana,  1914.  Charity  Dye,  writer  of  The  Booh  of  the 
Pageant  of  New  Harmony^  gives  many  excellent  sugges- 
tions. She  says  that  the  project  gave  every  child  some 
active  part  in  preparing  the  great  historical  event  of  the 
founding  of  the  town. 

Testimony  to  the  same  effect  is  given  by  E.  H.  K. 
McComb,  head  of  the  English  department  of  the  Manual 
Training  High  School,  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  reported  in 
The  English  Journal^  September,  1914.  He  states  that  a 
Pageant  of  Chivalry  quickened  the  life  of  the  school 
and  drew  all  departments  closer  together,  while  provid- 
ing a  world  of  material  in  English  composition. 

Pageantry  Material.  —  There  is  no  lack  of  pageantry 
material.  The  bulletins  and  supplements  of  the  Ameri- 
can Pageant  Association  are  well  prepared,  and  are  on 
file  in  many  public  libraries.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to 
obtain  them  for  your  school  library,  or  for  your  public 
library.  These  bulletins  give  a  list  of  all  important  pag- 
eants so  far  held  abroad  or  in  America,  and  of  those  in 
preparation,  so  far  as  announced.  Refer  also  to  the 
Drama  League  Monthly. 

It  would  be  well  to  prepare  a  list  for  the  use  of  your 
high  school  and  community,  based  on  all  obtainable  in- 
formation. There  are  a  number  of  magazine  articles  on 
pageantry,  readily  listed    by   Poole's   Index  and    by  the 


Organizing  for  the  Pageant  179 

Header's  Guide,  and  similar  books.  The  files  of  the 
English  Journal^  the  Outlook,  and  the  Survey  contain  re- 
ports and  papers  on  pageantry. 

What  is  termed  the  Book  of  the  Pageant,  issued  by  the 
best  pageants,  will  be  found  profitable.  Perhaps  the  most 
thorough  of  these  is  The  Book  of  the  Army  Pageant,  by 
F.  R.  Benson  and  A.  T.  Craig.  It  describes  in  sugges- 
tive and  accurate  detail  everything  relating  to  this 
pageant.  Its  costume  studies  are  fine.  The  Handbook  of 
American  Pageantry,  profusely  illustrated,  will  afford 
valuable  assistance.  It  is  written  by  Ralph  Davol. 
Pageants  and  Pageantry,  by  E.  W.  Bates,  is  also  valuable. 
The  Book  of  the  Pageant  and  Masque  of  Saint  Louis,  by 
T.  W.  Stevens  and  Percy  Mackaye,  the  Book  of  the  Pag- 
eant of  New  Harmony,  by  Charity  Dye,  and  the  Book  of 
the  Pageant  of  North  Dakota  are  excellent. 

Organizing  for  the  Pageant.  —  To  make  the  project  a 
success,  there  should  be  appointed  a  committee  of  five,  to 
be  known  as  the  pageant  committee.  This  committee 
should  combine  with  patience,  enthusiasm,  courage,  and 
common  sense,  a  wide  vision,  strong  initiative,  some  dra- 
matic ability,  and  the  best  executive  talent  the  high  school 
affords. 

The  committee  of  the  pageant  should  acquaint  itself 
with  the  literature  of  the  pageant.  It  will  be  the  business 
of  the  English  department  to  furnish  the  bulletins  and  cir- 
culars of  the  American  Pageant  Association,  and  several 
f.  the  best  books  on  pageantry. 

Working  in  conjunction  with  the  English  department, 
the  pageant  committee  should  decide  upon  the  pageant 
best  suited  to  local  conditions.  From  the  first  step  to 
the  last,  this  committee  must  furnish  force  and  direction 
to  the  project. 


180  Pageantry 

Master  and  Manager.  —  After  deciding  what  pageant  to 
give,  and  the  approximate  date  of  its  presentation,  the  first 
important  duty  of  the  pageant  committee  is  the  choice  of 
the  pageant  master.  This  selection  should  not  be  hastily 
made,  the  pageant  master  being  the  chief  executive  of  the 
project. 

In  the  smaller  schools,  the  pageant  master  may  perform 
the  duties  of  coach,  but  in  almost  any  school  it  may  be 
found  advisable  to  keep  these  two  offices  separate.  It  will 
frequently  happen  that  one  of  the  faculty  of  the  high  school 
will  make  the  best  possible  coach. 

Altogether  distinct  from  the  work  of  the  pageant  master 
and  the  coach  is  that  of  the  business  manager.  He  should  be 
from  the  ranks  of  the  high  school,  and  should  command  the 
respect  and  confidence  of  the  student  body.  The  writer  of 
the  book  of  the  pageant  should  be  either  one  of  the  faculty, 
or  one  of  the  ablest  students  in  the  English  department. 

The  Committees.  —  There  should  be  at  least  five  com- 
mittees of  not  less  than  three  each,  the  finance,  editorial, 
historical,  publicity/,  and  cast  committees.  In  addition  to 
the  three  members  above  suggested,  each  committee  should 
have  as  an  ex  officio  member  one  of  the  pageant  committee. 

The  finance  committee  has  two  funds  to  provide  for.  It 
must  arrange  for  a  guarantee  fund,  with  which  to  back  the 
entire  project.  Then  it  has  to  provide  for  the  cash  fund, 
out  of  which  are  to  be  paid  the  expenses  of  the  production. 
It  may  realize  much  from  the  sale  of  tickets,  boxes,  adver. 
tising  space  on  the  official  program,  and  the  sale  of  the 
book  of  the  pageant. 

The  edito7'ial  committee  is  responsible,  in  the  first  place, 
for  good  and  effective  English.  It  should  see  that  every- 
thing that  goes  out  from  any  department  of  the  pageant 
organization  meets  the  requirements  of  what  is  termed 


The  Committees  181 

hunness  English.  For  instance,  the  letters  from  the 
finance  committee  with  regard  to  the  guarantee  fund  should, 
in  current  phrase,  be  letters  that  pull. 

In  the  next  place,  this  committee  should  provide  for  the 
up-to-date  reproduction  of  whatever  letters,  circulars,  and 
bulletins  may  be  thought  necessary.  It  may  make  use 
of  the  typewriter,  the  hectograph,  the  mimeograph,  and 
the  multigraph,  or  other  duplicating  machines.  If  the 
school  possesses  a  printing  department,  it  should  materially 
assist  this  committee. 

The  historical  committee  is  to  look  up  and  send  out  to 
the  respective  committees,  officials,  and  performers,  all 
necessary  information.  It  is  also  to  see  that  historical 
accuracy  is  preserved  all  the  way  through.  It  should 
prepare  and  submit  to  the  editorial  committee  all  current 
magazine  literature  bearing  on  the  subject ;  the  dates  and 
nature  of  the  most  important  pageants  that  have  been  pre- 
sented, as  well  as  those  in  preparation. 

With  the  director  of  art,  the  costumer,  and  the  pageant 
master,  the  historical  committee  should  see  to  it  that  the 
pageant  is  true  to  life,  and  to  the  period  or  periods  repre- 
sented. The  work  of  the  historical  committee  is  to  make 
sure  that  nothing  incongruous  creeps  into  the  presentation 
at  any  point. 

The  publicity/  committee  has  charge  of  the  advertising  of 
the  project.  In  the  preparation  of  all  advertising  matter 
of  whatever  nature,  the  editorial  committee  should  be 
freely  consulted.  This  publicity  committee  has  charge 
of  the  distribution  of  the  advertising  matter,  and  in  this 
work  it  should  have  the  assistance  of  the  business  manager. 
If  a  poster  is  to  be  used,  this  committee  should  see  to  its 
preparation  and  distribution. 

The  publicity  committee  should  see  that  all  the  adver- 
tising forces  of  the  high  school  are  put  to  work,  and  it 


182  Pageantry 

should  cooperate  with  the  editorial  committee  in  arousing 
interest.  To  this  end,  the  best  speakers  in  the  high  school 
should  be  enlisted.  The  school  paper  will  prove  a  valu- 
able auxiliary,  and  its  editorial  force  should  be  kept  busy. 

The  publicity  committee  should  do  all  in  its  power  to 
interest  the  local  press,  which  will  be  quick  to  respond,  if 
the  project  is  properly  presented. 

The  cast  committee  has  to  do  with  the  selection  of  the 
performers,  working  in  conjunction  with  the  ditferent 
directors. 

Other  Assistants. — The  duties  of  the  art  director^  the 
director  of  music^  the  drill  master^  the  dance  director^ 
the  property  man^  and  the  leaders  of  the  episodes  or  move- 
ments constituting  the  pageant,  are  indicated  by  their 
titles. 

The  respective  heads  of  the  manual  training  and  domestic 
science  departments  will  afford  valuable  assistance  to  the 
pageant  master,  the  designer  of  costumes,  and  the  prop- 
erty man. 

The  commercial  department  can  aid  in  the  reproduction 
of  the  necessary  letters,  bulletins,  and  circulars  sent  out  by 
the  various  committees. 

The  English  Department.  —  Most  of  the  work  in  pre- 
paring for  the  pageant  will  fall  upon  the  English  depart- 
ment.  Hundreds  of  actual  business  letters  will  pass  and 
repass  in  organizing  the  project,  thus  affording  valuable 
exercise  for  the  English  class. 

Visit  from  a  Business  Man.  —  A  visit  from  some  business 
man  noted  for  his  ability  in  business  correspondence 
would  prove  of  lasting  benefit.  Let  the  class  be  given 
over  to  him  for  his  criticism  and  advice. 

Prepare  a  topical  outline  which  shall  include  the  salient 
points  on  pageantry. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


183 


The  Great  Conde  at  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.     Gerome. 


EXERCISES   BASED  ON  PICTURES. 

The  Great  Cond^  at  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.  —  Get  into  the 
spirit  of  the  scene.  It  is  a  painting  by  Gerome,  a  famous  French 
artist.     Tell  the  story  of  the  picture. 

A  great  monarch  of  France  stands  at  the  head  of  the  stair- 
way in  the  palace  of  Versailles  to  receive  his  great  general 
after  a  famous  victory.  What  a  fine  piece  of  pageantry  is 
shown  in  the  captured  banners  that  line  the  staircase  on  either 
side !  This  is  in  1674.  The  Great  Conde  ascends  the  stairs 
alone,  as  if  his  arm  had  won  all  these  trophies,  as  in  a  sense  it 
had. 

Louis  XIV.  This  is  that  French  king  who  said,  "  I  am  the 
State  ! "  He  is  the  typical  "  divine  right "  king.  Study  his 
life,  and  that  of  Charles  I  of  England,  who  held  to  the  same 
theory,  that  of  the  right  of  kings  to  rule  as  they  please.  Con- 
trast that  phrase  uttered  by  Abraham  Lincoln,  "  the  govern- 
ment of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people." 
Prepare  a  talk  on  this  subject,  giving  it  whatever  title  you 
choose. 


184  Pageantry 

EXERCISES  m  PAGEANTRY 

(a)  Preliminary  Work.  —  The  scenario  of  a  pageant  is  a  sketch  of 
the  plot  or  main  incidents  to  be  brought  out  in  the  pageant. 

1.  Write  in  from  four  hundred  to  seven  hundred  -words, 
the  scenario  of  an  episode  or  movement  of  a  pageant  based  on 
one  of  the  following  stories  suited  to  pageantry  : 

Aladdin's  Lamp,  Ali  Baba,  The  Sleeping  Beauty,  Waverley, 
Robin  Hood,  Cinderella,  The  Pied  Piper,  Treasure  Island, 
Robinson  Crusoe. 

2.  Select  from  the  same  list.  Write  the  scenario  entire,  in 
three  or  four  movements  or  episodes,  using  from  twelve  hun- 
dred, to  twenty-five  hundred  words. 

(b)  Letters.  —  In  preparing  the  following  letters,  bear  in  mind  the 
principles  learned  in  the  chapters  on  Letter-writing. 

1.  Write  letters  to  the  members  of  the  committee  of  the 
pageant,  announcing  their  appointment,  and  requesting  them 
to  serve. 

2.  Compose  letters  from  the  pageant  committee  to  the 
members  of  the  important  committees,  announcing  their  ap- 
pointment, and  outlining  their  respective  duties.  Include  a 
list  of  the  members  of  that  committee  on  which  the  person 
addressed  is  expected  to  serve. 

3.  Send  letters  from  the  chairmen  of  the  various  com- 
mittees to  the  officials  of  the  pageant,  announcing  their  respec- 
tive appointments,  and  detailing  the  duties  devolving  upon 
them. 

4.  Write  letters  from  the  cast  committee  to  each  performer, 
indicating  what  is  expected  of  each  performer,  his  costume, 
and  such  other  information  as  may  be  necessary. 

5.  Prepare  first  draft  of  letters  from  the  finance  com- 
mittee to  those  to  whom  appeal  is  to  be  made  for  the  guaran- 
tee fund.  Prepare  also  acknowledgments  for  satisfactory 
response,  and  so  on. 

(c)  Lists.  —  In  making  these  lists,  see  that  they  are  neatly  arranged 
and  follow  either  logical  or  alphabetical  order. 


Exercises  in  Pageantry  185 

1.  Prepare  a  reference  list  in  bulletin  form  of  the  bulletins 
of  the  American  Pageant  Association,  so  far  issued,  indicating 
the  nature  of  each  bulletin.  This  description  should  be  brief 
but  comprehensive. 

2.  Some  of  the  bulletins  above  referred  to,  may  be  more 
fully  summarized,  or  if  necessary,  reproduced  in  full,  for  the 
use  of  committees. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  books  treating  of  the  pageant,  or  related 
subjects.  Find  these  in  your  public  library,  and  other 
libraries  to  which  the  high  school  has  access. 

4.  Compile  a  list  of  current  magazine  articles  bearing  on 
pageantry.  This  list  should  clearly  indicate  the  following 
items  with  regard  to  each  article,  (a)  Title  of  the  magazine, 
written  in  full ;  (6)  the  number  of  the  volume  and  page ; 
(c)  the  title  of  the  article  referred  to,  in  full ;  (d)  the  name 
of  the  writer ;  (e)  the  name  of  the  pageant  referred  to. 

5.  Get  a  list  of  "The  Book  of  the  Pageant"  for  the  more 
important  pageants. 

6.  Prepare  a  list  of  the  leading  educational  publications 
dealing  with  the  pageant.     Important  articles  should  be  noted. 

7.  Make  a  list  of  important  pageants,  giving  the  necessary 
information  in  each  case. 

(d)  Bulletins.  —  Five  or  more  students  are  to  be  put  to  work  to 
prepare  each  bulletin.  Each  is  to  write  the  bulletin  as  he  thinks  it 
should  appear.     It  will  then  be  put  into  final  shape  in  class. 

Bulletin  No.  1. 

WJiat  is  Pageantry  ?  —  This  should  be  in  from  five  hundred 
to  one  thousand  words.  The  students  should  be  familiar  with 
the  bulletin  of  this  title  issued  by  the  American  Pageant  Asso- 
ciation. Your  bulletin,  however,  should  be  original  in  form, 
at  least. 

Bulletin  No.  2. 

WTio's  Who  in  Pageantry  f  —  This  is  to  be  a  list  of  pageant 
masters,  and  the  pageants  they  have  presented. 


186  Pageantry 

BuUetin  No.  3. 

A  Bibliography  of  Pageantry.  —  This  should  include  impor- 
tant magazine  literature  on  the  subject. 

BuUetin  No.  4. 

Noted  Pageants,  Past  and  to  Come.  —  Enough  should  be  said 
to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  what  each  pageant  attempted. 

Bulletin  No.  6. 

The  Book  of  the  Pageant.  —  An  outline  of  some  excellent 
"  book,"  showing  method  of  treatment. 

Bulletin  No.  6. 

Our  Own  Pageant.  —  A  brief  statement  of  what  is  proposed. 
It  is  to  be  complete  enough  to  furnish  an  intelligible  descrip- 
tion of  the  entire  project. 

Bulletin  No.  7. 

Who^s  Who  in  Our  Pageant  ?  —  This  should  indicate  the  en- 
tire organization  of  the  projected  pageant,  and  should  be 
complete. 

(e)  Suggested  Subjects  for  High  School  Pageantry.  —  Manifestly,  if 
interest  is  aroused,  and  a  pageant  is  to  be  undertaken,  local  pride 
and  patriotism  will  suggest  subjects.  It  may  not  be  inadvisable, 
however,  to  suggest  the  following  subjects  for  high  school  pageantry. 

1.  A  Pageant  of  the  State,  or  of  the  City.  2.  The  Return 
of  Lafayette.  3.  Folk  Lore  Stories,  such  as  Cinderella,  Puss 
in  Boots,  etc.  4.  A  Pageant  of  America.  5.  A  Pageant  of 
Early  Exploration  and  Discovery.  6.  A  Pageant  of  Old  Colo- 
nial Days.  7.  The  Pageant  of  the  Pilgrims.  8.  Joan  of 
Arc  Pageant.  9.  A  Pageant  of  the  Odyssey.  10.  An  Eliza- 
bethan Pageant.  11.  A  Pageant  of  the  Old  Testament. 
12.  A  Pageant  of  the  Melting  Pot.  13.  A  Pageant  of  Old 
Glory.  14.  A  Pageant  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  15.  The 
Pageant  of  Lorna  Doone.     16.   A  Robert  Louis   Stevenson 


Making-up  a  Newspaper  187 

Pageant.  17.  A  Charles  Dickens  Pageant.  18.  A  Shake- 
speare Pageant.  19.  A  Pageant  of  the  Round  Table.  20.  A 
Pageant  of  Chivalry.  21.  A  Pageant  of  the  North  West. 
22.  A  Pageant  of  the  North  American  Indian.  23.  A  Pageant 
of  the  Army,  or  of  the  Navy.  24.  Pioneer  Days.  25.  Away 
Down  South  in  Dixie.     26.   Ivanhoe.     27.   Hiawatha. 

(/)  A  Contest  in  Making-up  a  Newspaper.  —  Let  a  number  of  first- 
class  newspapers  be  provided,  say  a  week's  issue  of  some  one  paper, 
or  copies  of  a  dozen  or  so  papers  from  different  cities.  Let  the  Eng- 
lish class  be  divided  into  three  sections.  These  sections  are  to  com- 
pete with  each  other  as  to  the  make-up  of  a  newspaper.  Each 
member  of  each  section  may  prepare  a  specimen  newspaper,  the  best 
of  these  to  be  entered  in  the  contest ;  or  the  division  may  together 
produce  a  specimen  newspaper,  to  be  entered  in  the  contest.  Each 
section  is  to  decide  for  itself  how  it  shall  prepare  for  the  contest. 

1.  Let  there  be  a  round  table  conference  of  the  entire  class  as 
to  what  items  enter  into  the  make-up  of  a  good  newspaper.  The 
first  page,  made  up  of  telegraph  or  wireless  messages,  from 
near  and  far.  The  general  telegraph  news.  The  editorials. 
The  advertisements.  The  local  news.  Let  examples  of  each 
of  these  items  be  shown,  and  their  good  points  demonstrated. 
Study  the  headlines.  Look  into  the  press  work,  and  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  paper.  What  departments  are  there  in 
a  good  newspaper  ?  What  kinds  of  employment  offers,  so  far 
as  the  mechanical  part  of  the  paper  is  concerned?  What 
managers  are  there,  and  what  are  their  duties  ?  What  editors 
are  there,  and  what  are  their  duties  ?  What  news  writers  and 
reporters  are  there,  and  how  are  they  trained  for  their  work  ? 
How  about  the  distribution  of  the  paper,  by  mail,  by  newsboys 
and  news  dealers,  and  by  carriers  ? 

2.  A  Loose-leaf  Newspaper.  —  Follow  the  example  of  the 
makers  of  newspapers,  and  use  scissors  and  paste.  Clip  what 
strikes  you  from  the  newspapers,  and  uae  it.  Use  loose-leaf 
manuscript  paper,  and  prepare  the  following  parts  of  a  news- 
paper : 

3.  Parts  of  the  Newspaper.  —  (a)  Prepare  a  first  page^  made 


188  Pageantry 

up  of  one  or  two  good  "stories."  You  may  clip  a  cable 
account  of  some  important  happening,  and  an  additional 
account,  telegraphed  from  outside  somewhere.  Study  head' 
lining,  and  prepare  suitable  headlines,  arranged  in  the  most 
effective  way.  (6)  Prepare  a  second  page,  made  up  of  general 
news.  This  may  include  from  two  to  four  items,  and  from  a 
half-dozen  to  a  dozen  briefer  news  items,  of  not  more  than  one 
hundred  words,  (c)  Prepare  a  page  of  advertising  matter,  two- 
thirds  of  display  matter,  and  one-third  of  classified  advertis- 
ing. You  may  include  here  the  best  cartoon  you  can  clip 
anyivhere.  (d)  Prepare  a  local  page.  As  this  is  not  designed  as 
a  school  paper,  you  will  omit  any  jokes,  or  hits  at  members  of 
the  class.  What  is  wanted  is  such  items  as  should  make  up 
the  local  page  of  a  good  newspaper.  As  all  items  in  this  com- 
plete issue  are  to  be  clipped  from  representative  newspapers 
and  pasted  in  place  on  the  pages  of  your  specimen  newspaper, 
the  importance  of  a  good  selection  is  evident. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  impossible  under  the  terms  of  this  con- 
test, to  have  your  specimen  newspaper  look  altogether  like  a 
newspaper  as  actually  printed.  You  may  use  anywhere  from 
six  to  ten  pages  of  your  loose-leaf  manuscript  paper  for  a  page 
of  your  specimen  paper.  If  you  desire  to  make  this  larger, 
it  will  be  proper  to  agree  upon  the  maximum  and  minimum 
limit. 

4.  Judging  the  Specimen  Newspaper's. ^It  would  be  wise  to 
secure  three  newspaper  men  to  act  as  judges.  Mark  on  a  scale 
of  ten  for  each  page,  and  ten  for  general  excellence,  aside 
from  other  considerations.  The  judges  will  mark  from  the  news- 
paper point  of  view,  putting  all  other  considerations  aside. 

At  the  close  of  the  contest,  an  address  on  the  make-vp  of  a 
newspaper  by  some  competent  speaker,  for  instance,  one  of 
the  judges,  will  be  timely,  and  will  prove  interesting.  Let 
the  members  of  the  English  class  take  notes,  and  let  a  copy 
of  the  best  set  of  notes  thus  taken  be  mailed  to  the  speaker 
by  the  instructor  in  English. 

5.  Visit  to  a  Newspaper  Office. — If  it  can  be  arranged,  it 


Exercises  in  Pageantry  189 

may  be  well  to  visit  a  good  newspaper  office.  Let  the  visit  be 
by  appointment.  Be  on  hand  promptly,  and  when  the  inter- 
view is  over,  and  the  proper  courtesies  have  been  extended  for 
the  privilege  of  seeing  Effective  English  at  work,  depart 
promptly.  Carry  away  with  you  a  definite  idea  of  the  aim, 
methods,  and  accomplishments  of  a  modern  newspaper. 

6.  A  High  School  Paper}  —  Many  high  schools  conduct  a 
high  school  paper.  If  your  school  does  not  have  this  feature, 
let  the  permanent  editorial  committee  take  steps  to  organize 
and  put  into  successful  operation  a  high  school  paper. 

To  begin  with,  this  organization  should  include  the  selection 
by  election  or  appointment  of  at  least  an  editor  and  a  business 
manager.  These,  with  the  editorial  committee,  should  get 
in  touch  with  several  schools  of  hig*h  rank  issuing  school 
papers,  and  should  ask  for  suggestions.  Let  enthusiasm  and 
diligence  characterize  this  project  from  the  start. 

7.  An  Editorial  on  Pageantry.  —  In  an  editorial  for  your 
school  paper,  urge  the  presentation  of  some  striking  piece  of 
pageantry.  Do  your  best  to  interest  your  class  in  the  project. 
Embody  in  this  article  the  reasons  that  appeal  to  you  for  giving 
a  pageant. 

8.  The  Drama  Club.  —  If  you  think  it  will  further  the  proj- 
ect, organize  a  drama  club  in  your  high  school  with  a  view  to 
preparing  for  a  pageant. 

9.  Address  on  Pageantry.  —  Let  some  one  who  has  taken 
part  in  a  pageant  give  an  address  showing  how  to  make  a 
success  of  pageantry. 


1  School  Journalism.  —  The  school  paper  may  be  made  a  vital  force  in 
English  work,  and  so  deserves  the  support  of  the  teacher  of  composition. 
If  well  conducted,  its  influence  on  the  editors  and  on  the  school  may  be 
very  helpful  in  maintaining  worthy  standards  of  expression. 

—  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 

This  is  also  urged  in  the  Beport  of  the  National  Joint  Committee  on 
the  Beorganization  of  High  School  English,  which  says  that  "the  con- 
ducting of  a  school  paper  and  the  organization  of  literary  and  dramatic 
clubs  should  be  encouraged  and  directed  because  of  the  opportunity  they 
afford  for  free  play  of  the  mind  and  practice  in  expression.'* 


190 


Pageantry 


Saluting  the  Flag. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES. 

Saluting  the  Flag  1  — •  Here  is  shown  a  group  out  of  Kew 
York's  800,000  school  children,  saluting  the  American  Flag. 
A  proper  study  of  this  picture  may  indicate  something  of 
"what  America  means.     Give  it  your  own  interpretation. 


1.  Describe  the  scene,  and  what  it  typifies. 

2.  Visit  of  Joffre  and  Balfour.  —  When  these  representatives  of 
France  and  England  visited  the  United  States  in  1917,  one  of  the 
characteristic  parades  in  their  honor  was  that  of  the  public  school 
children,  a  most  inspiring  sight.     Describe  some  such  event. 

3.  The  Flag  Goes  By  !  —  Let  a  good  reader  recite  or  read  H.  H. 
Bennett's-  spirited  poem,  "  The  Flag  Goes  By  I  " 

4.  The  American  Flag.  —  Read  or  recite  Joseph  Rodman  Drake's 
poem  beginning,  "When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height,"  and 
unfurl  the  flag  in  the  classroom.     Salute  the  flag. 

5.  Old  Glory.  —  Read  James  Whitcomb  Riley's  patriotic  poem, 
«« The  Name  of  Old  Glory." 


PART   THREE 
THE  FOUR   FORMS   OF   EFFECTIVE   ENGLISH 

CHAPTER   XV 
FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE 


He  who  classifies  clears  the  way  for  future  work.  —  Arlo  Bates. 


Four  Forms  of  Speech.  —  Listen  to  a  group  of  students 
in  interested  conversation  about  a  high  school  reception 
that  took  place  last  night.  One  of  the  boys  was  unable 
to  be  present,  and  his  friend  is  telling  him  what  happened. 
A  girl  is  trying  to  make  her  chum  see  something  as  she  saw 
it^  something  which  her  chum  missed  seeing.  A  second 
girl,  with  several  schoolmates  clustered  about  her,  is 
"doing  up"  the  tresses  of  the  girl  in  front  of  her,  and 
explaining  how  a  certain  girl  wore  her  hair.  Over  in  a 
corner  of  the  room  two  boys  are  trying  to  convince  a  third 
of  the  importance  of  what  they  urge  upon  him. 

The  first  boy  is  making  use  of  narration.  The  first  girl 
is  employing  description.  The  second  girl  is  giving  an 
exposition^  while  the  two  boys  in  the  corner  are  using 
argument.  Almost  everything  that  is  said  or  written 
comes  under  one  of  these  four  ways  of  saying  things. 

Definitions.  —  The  four  forms  of  discourse  are  simply 
defined  as  follows. 

Narration  is  the  telling  of  a  story,  or  the  relating  of  the 
particulars  of  an  event. 

191 


192 


Forms  of  Discourse 


Description  is  an  effort  to  convey  a  picture  in  words. 

Exposition  is  an  explanation  of  something,  generally  to 
one  who  does  not  understand  it. 

Argument  is  an  effort  to  prove  or  disprove  the  truth  of 
an  assertion  to  one  who  is  disposed  to  doubt,  or  whose 
faith  needs  to  be  strengthened.  Its  aim  is  to  produce 
conviction. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  between  narra- 
tion and  description,  since  the  best  narrative  abounds  in 
bits  of  description,  or  may  itself  become  descriptive  nar- 
rative. The  difference  lies  in  the  purpose  which  the 
writer  has  in  mind,  whether  to  tell  a  story  or  to  paint  a 
picture. 


The  Dome  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  193 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Dome  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  —  Give  your  impressions  of  this 
dome,  as  if  your  eye  had  caught  sight  of  it  through  the  trees,  as 
shown  in  the  picture. 

St.  Peter's  is  called  the  noblest  temple  of  Christianity,  and 
is  the  largest  Christian  place  of  worship.  Its  dome,  designed 
by  Michelangelo,  rises  nobly  to  the  sky,  in  its  outlines  one  of 
the  finest  conceptions  of  modern  times.  It  is  well  shown  in 
the  picture. 

To  see  the  contrast  in  different  styles  of  architecture,  refer  to 
the  following  pictures  in  this  book  :  Bedouins  of  the  Desert,  page 
290,  where  are  shown  Mohammedan  minarets ;  Church  of  St. 
Antony  at  Padua,  page  275,  in  the  Byzantine  style  ;  the  Norman 
Stairway,  page  138,  in  the  Norman  style.  If  this  study  interests 
you,  ask  your  librarian  for  some  good  elementary  book  on 
architecture,  and  study  it  in  order  to  prepare  a  paper  on  Archi- 
tecture.    You  can  make  it  interesting. 

EXAMPLES  OF  THE  FOUR  FORMS    OF  DISCOURSE 

Narration.  — In  the  following  narrative,  notice  in  what 
a  straightforward  way  the  story  is  told.  It  tells  what 
happened  and  concerns  itself  with  nothing  else. 

Wherefore  at  last,  lighting  under  a  little  shelter,  they  sat 
down  there  till  the  daybreak;  but  being  weary,  they  fell 
asleep.  Now  there  was  not  far  from  the  place  where  they 
lay,  a  castle  called  Doubting  Castle,  the  owner  whereof  was 
Giant  Despair,  and  it  was  in  his  grounds  they  were  now  sleep- 
ing. Wherefore  he,  getting  up  in  the  morning  early,  and 
walking  up  and  down  in  his  fields,  caught  Christian  and  Hope- 
ful asleep  in  his  grounds. 

Then  with  a  grim  and  surly  voice  he  bid  them  awake,  and 
asked  them  whence  they  were?  and  what  they  did  in  his 
grounds  ?  They  told  him  they  were  Pilgrims,  and  that  they 
had  lost  their  way.  Then  said  the  Giant,  You  have  this 
nigh':  trespassed  on  me,  by  trampling  in  and  lying  on  my 


194  Forms  of  Discourse 

grounds,  and  therefore  you  must  go  along  with  me.  So  they 
were  forced  to  go,  because  he  was  stronger  than  they.  They 
also  had  but  little  to  say,  for  they  knew  themselves  in  a  fault. 

—  From  The  Pilgrim'' s  Progress^  by  John  Bunyan. 

Description.  —  Below  is  an  example  of  pure  description. 
Stevenson  has  drawn  a  picture  of  Ben  Gann,  who  was 
marooned  on  a  lonely  island  for  three  years.  Jim  Haw- 
kins is  telling  how  Gunn  looked  when  he  came  upon  him 
unexpectedly. 

I  could  now  see  that  he  was  a  white  man  like  myself,  and 
that  his  features  were  even  pleasing.  His  skin,  wherever  it 
was  exposed,  was  burned  by  the  sun  ;  even  his  lips  were  black, 
and  his  fair  eyes  looked  quite  startling  in  so  dark  a  face.  Of  all 
the  beggar-men  that  I  had  seen  or  fancied,  he  was  the  chief 
for  raggedness.  He  was  clothed  with  tatters  of  old  ship's 
canvas  and  old  sea-cloth ;  and  his  extraordinary  patchwork 
was  all  held  together  by  a  system  of  the  most  various  and  in- 
congruous fastenings,  brass  buttons,  bits  of  stick,  and  loops  of 
tarry  gaskin.  About  his  waist  he  wore  an  old  brass-buckled 
leather  belt,  which  was  the  one  thing  solid  in  his  whole  ac- 
coutrement. 

—  From  Treasure  Island^  by  E.  L.  Stevenson. 

Exposition.  —  The  following  is  a  brief  exposition  or  ex- 
planation of  the  relation  of  the  queen  bee  to  the  bees  in 
the  swarm. 

The  notion  has  always  very  generally  prevailed  that  the 
queen  of  the  bees  is  an  absolute  ruler,  and  issues  her  royal 
orders  to  willing  subjects.  But  the  fact  is  a  swarm  of  bees  is 
an  absolute  democracy,  and  kings  and  despots  can  find  no  war- 
rant in  their  example.  The  power  and  authority  are  entirely 
invested  in  the  great  mass,  the  workers.  They  furnish  all  the 
brains  and  foresight  of  the  colony,  and  administer  its  affairs. 
Their  word  is  law,  and  both  king  and  queen  must  obey.    They 


Argument  195 

regulate  tlie  swarming,  and  give  the  signal  for  the  swarm  to 
issue  from  the  hive ;  they  select  and  make  ready  the  tree  in 
the  woods  and  conduct  the  queen  to  it. 

—  From  Birds  and  Bees,  by  John  Burroughs. 

Argument. — In  Huxley's  argument  given  below,  he 
names  three  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  chalk  cliffs  of 
England  were  once  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

When  we  consider  (1)  that  the  remains  of  more  than  three 
thousand  distinct  species  of  aquatic  animals  have  been  discov- 
ered among  the  fossils  of  the  chalk ;  (2)  that  the  great  majority 
of  them  are  of  such  forms  as  are  now  met  with  only  in  the 
sea ;  and  (3)  that  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  one 
of  them  inhabited  fresh  water,  —  the  evidence  that  the  chalk 
represents  an  ancient  sea-bottom  acquires  great  force. 

—  From  Address  on  a  Piece  of  Chalk,  by  Thomas  Huxley. 

Prepare  an  outline  covering  the  points  brought  out  in  this 
chapter. 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  FOUR  FORMS  OF  EFFECTIVE  ENGLISH 

(a)  Bring  to  class  an  example  chosen  by  yourself,  illustrating  each 
of  the  four  forms  of  effective  English,  narration,  description,  exposition 
and  argument,  choosing  from  any  of  these  sources : 

1.  From  the  Bible  ; 

2.  From  English  literature,  as  studied  so  far  in  the  high 
school ; 

3.  From  the  daily  newspapers  ; 

4.  From  the  current  magazines. 

(b)  Friendly  Letters.  —  Friendly  letters  may  contain  description  and 
narration,  for  the  sake  of  interest,  while  for  the  sake  of  clearness 
they  may  include  exposition.  Many  such  letters  also  admit  of  argu- 
ment.     Write  the  three  letters  following. 

1.  Letter  Containing  Description  and  Narration.  —  Prepare 
a  letter  to  a  friend  who  is  a  member  of  a  high  school  in  another 


196  Forms  of  Discourse 

city,  where  it  happens  that  they  have  no  basket  ball  te&,m,  and 
do  not  care  for  the  game.  Describe  an  interesting  game  played 
on  your  floor. 

2.  Letter  Containing  Exposition.  —  Write  a  second  letter 
in  answer  to  one  from  your  friend,  asking  how  to  play  basket 
ball.  Do  this  in  the  form  of  an  exposition^  using  the  following 
outline. 

Outline  for  Exposition.    Basket  Ball 

I.     General  definition  of  basket  ball. 

II.     Equipment. 

a.   The  field  or  floor. 

1.  Shape. 

2.  Dimensions. 

3.  Divisions. 
h.  The  baskets. 

1.  Number. 

2.  Size. 

8.   Position. 
C.   The  ball. 

1.  Size. 

2.  Shape. 

3.  MateriaL 

III.  Players. 

a.  Number. 
h.  Position, 
c.  Duties. 

IV.  Team  work. 

a.   Importance. 
h.   How  attained. 

3.  Letter  Containing  Argument.  —  Write  a  letter  urging 
your  friend  to  organize  a  basket  ball  team.  Give  the  argu- 
ments for  it. 

(c)  A  Contest.  —  Choose  five  on  a  side.  Select  a  judge.  The 
two  sides  are  to  give,  turn  about,  as  called  upon,  a  narrative,  a  bit 
of  description,  an  exposition,  or  an  argument,  original  or  selected. 
The  judge  will  mark  each  contestant,  keep  score,  and  announce  the 
result. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


197 


Pfiotograph  bu  Front  C.  Sage. 

Sky  Scraping. 
With  the  crossbar  set  at  1 1  feet  9  inches. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Sky  Scraping.  —  There  is  something  of  the  spectacular  in 
the  pole  vault.  This  performer  is  coming  over  in  fine  style, 
with  the  crossbar  set  at  11  feet  9  inches.  It  would  be  worth 
going  miles  to  see. 

1 .  Description  of  a  Contest,  —  Write  a  description  of  such  an  event, 
with  three  entrants  representing  three  high  schools,  yours  among  the 
number. 

2.  Points  in  Vaulting.  —  If  you  are  unable  to  answer  from  your 
own  information,  read  up  on  this  subject  in  some  magazine  devoted 
to  athletics,  and  prepare  a  paper  on  the  topic.  Or  go  to  a  gymnasium, 
and  interview  some  performer  about  it.    Make  it  interesting. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
EFFECTIVE  NARRATION 


Othello.     I  will  a  round  unvarnished  tale  deliver. —  Shakespeare, 


Narrative.  —  Narrative  makes  up  the  great  body  of  what 
we  hear  or  read.  Perhaps  four  fifths  of  all  that  is  written 
nowadays  is  for  the  newspapers,  and  much  the  greater 
part  of  newspaper  work  is  narrative.  Narrative  includes 
also  short  stories,  biographies,  histories,  novels,  and  plays. 
Most  magazine  articles,  too,  are  narrative. 

Narration  deals  with  action,  generally  in  a  succession  of 
happenings  which  are  bound  together  either  by  time  order^ 
in  short  and  simple  stories,  or  by  the  natural  sequence  of 
cause  and  effect^  in  larger  and  complex  stories.  And  what 
is  called  the  plot  of  the  story  has  much  to  do  with  holding 
it  together. 

The  Plot.  — ^\iQplot  is  the  connected  plan  or  scheme  of  a 
story.  It  means  that  the  writer  or  story-teller  has  thought 
out  the  whole  story,  step  by  step,  until  he  knows  just  what 
he  intends  to  tell,  and  just  what  he  proposes  to  accomplish 
by  the  telling.  This  plan  or  plot  underlies  all  he  tells,  and 
is  a  strong  controlling  force  at  every  point  in  the  narrative. 

The  Point  of  View.  —  The  point  of  view  determines  in 
what  manner  the  story  is  to  be  told.  There  is  great 
variety  in  the  point  of  view,  but  it  will  be  well  for  the 
student,  until  he  has  acquired  considerable  facility  as  a 
story-teller,  to  confine  himself  to  one  of  two  methods.    He 

198 


Essential  Steps  in  Narration  199 

may  tell  the  story  in  the  first  person^  as  though  he  were 
the  hero  of  the  tale,  or  he  may  tell  it  in  the  third  person^ 
as  one  knowing  all  the  facts  in  the  case. 

One  who  writes  in  the  first  person  has  the  advantage  of 
a  certain  naturalness  which  gives  great  charm  and  fresh- 
ness, and  makes  him  more  at  home  in  handling  his  story. 
However,  he  only  knows  what  is  going  on  near  him,  and 
must  rely  upon  others  to  tell  him  what  is  done  elsewhere. 

By  writing  in  the  third  person,  the  narrator  can  lay 
claim  to  what  might  be  termed  the  author^s  omniscience. 
He  not  only  knows  what  his  hero  does,  but  is  able  to  ana- 
lyze the  purpose  not  yet  ripened  in  the  brain  of  his  char- 
acters. Nothing  is  hidden  from  him,  and  all  the  elements 
of  dramatic  interest  are  at  his  command. 

Essential  Steps  in  Narration.  —  Suppose  that  the  writer 
has  decided  upon  the  plot  of  his  story,  and  has  thoroughly 
matured  it.  His  story  has  been  well  conceived,  and  he  is 
now  ready  to  tell  it.  He  will  find  the  following  steps 
essential  in  the  proper  and  effective  narration  of  it. 

1.  He  must  give  the  setting  of  his  stoi-y ;  that  is,  he  must 
introduce  the  essential  characters  and  outline  the  time,  place, 
and  circumstances.     The  more  rapidly  this  is  done,  the  better. 

2.  He  must  grip  the  interest  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

3.  He  must  keep  up  the  .suspense. 

4.  He  must  bring  about  a  climax,  towards  which  everything 
must  move  from  the  very  first. 

5.  He  must  bring  his  story  to  a  conclusion  as  soon  as  possible 
after  his  climax  has  been  reached. 

The  Introduction.  —  The  introduction  should  be  brief 
and  to  the  point.  One  caution  is  worth  noting,  applicable 
with  more  force  to  the  speaker  than  to  the  writer,  but 
true  everywhere.  Do  not  say  anything  before  you  begin. 
Know  what  you  are  going  to  say,  and  say  it,  and  you  will 


200  Effective  Narration 

not  fail  to  command  attention.  Our  modern  short-story 
writers  have  learned  this  art,  and  their  example  is  well 
worth  following. 

Opening  the  story.  —  The  story  may  open  in  three  ways, 
or  in  some  combination  of  the  three.  It  may  open  by 
description^  as  in  the  Tale  of  Two  Cities ;  or  by  what  may 
be  termed  plot  opening^  where  the  story  begins  at  once, 
as  in  John  Halifax^  Gentleman;  or  by  characterization^  as 
in  most  stories  by  Rudyard  Kipling,  for  instance,  his 
Bread  upon  the  Waters. 

The  Intensive  Moment. — There  comes  a  time  in  every 
well-written  story  when  interest  perceptibly  deepens  and 
the  story  seems  to  take  a  closer  grip  upon  the  reader. 
This  is  called  the  intensive  moment^  and  should  occur  at 
the  earliest  opportunity,  following  the  introduction. 

The  Suspense.  —  The  interest  once  secured,  it  must  be 
the  writer's  endeavor  to  maintain  the  suspense  until  the 
climax  is  reached.  An  English  novelist  once  laughingly 
said  that  the  rule  for  making  a  successful  novel  could  be 
expressed  in  a  sentence.  "  Make  'em  laugh ;  make  'em 
cry;  make  'em  wait."  It  will  test  the  skill  of  the  student 
to  do  this  in  his  own  work. 

The  Climax.  —  The  natural  desire  of  all  who  see  a  play, 
or  read  a  good  novel,  or  hear  a  story,  is  to  see  how  it  turns 
out.  There  is  a  point  where  the  interest  culminates,  or 
comes  to  a  climax.  In  short  stories  the  narrative  hurries 
to  this  climax,  when  one  side  or  the  other  wins. 

The  Conclusion.  — -  The  conclusion  should  not  be  delayed 
after  the  climax  has  been  reached.  The  less  said  after 
that,  the  better,  A  paragraph  too  much  will  spoil  the 
best  story  ever  told. 

Let  your  story  tell  itself.  This  is  the  real  secret  of 
successful  narrative.  Think  over  it,  until  it  has  complete 
right  of  way  in  your  own  mind  and  heart,  and  then  when 


Example  of  Narration  201 

opportunity  comes,  let  it  tell  itself  unhindered  and  un- 
restrained,'and  you  will  have  found  the  secret  of  the 
successful  story-teller. 

The  sacred  Scriptures  abound  in  fine  narrative.  The 
story  of  Ruth^  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  straight- 
forwardness, is  one  of  the  best  in  all  literature.  For 
dramatic  narrative,  study  the  BqoTc  of  Esther,  For  an 
example  of  powerful  narrative,  refer  to  the  account  of  the 
creation  in  the  first  chapter  of  Grenesis,  including  also  the 
first  three  verses  of  the  second  chapter.  There  is  prob- 
ably nothing  anywhere  quite  equal  to  it  in  power  and 
simplicity. 

Prepare  a  topical  outline  that  shall  include  all  the  im- 
portant points  that  have  been  brought  out  in  this  chapter. 

EXAMPLE  OF  NARRATION 

The  example  of  narration  given  below  is  by  Henry 
Watterson,  describing  John  Paul  Jones's  battle  off  Flam- 
boro  Head.  The  following  headings  will  give  the  story 
in  outline. 

The  Battle  off  Flamboro  Head 

Paragraph  I.     1.  The  date,  and  where  it  was  fought. 

2.  The  two  ships  and  their  armament  contrasted. 

3.  How  the  two  ships  were  manned. 

4.  The  traitor  Landais. 

5.  The  crucial  point. 

Paragraph  II.  6.  The  explosion  of  the  gun-room  battery : 
"  I  have  only  just  begun  to  fight ! " 

"  This  duel  between  the  Bonhomme  Richard  and  the  Serapis 
was  fought  the  evening  of  Thursday,  September  23,  1779, 
between  the  hours  of  7  :  15  and  11 :  30  o'clock,  off  Flamboro 
Head,  a  promontory  which  juts  out  from  the  English  coast 
into  the  North  Sea  very  nearly  opposite  the  Texel,  an  island 
port  of  the  Netherlands.     The  Serapis  was  the  finest  of  Eng- 


202  Effective  Narration 

lish  frigates,  and  but  newly  off  the  stocks.  The  Richard  was 
an  old  East  India  tub,  done  over.  The  Serapis  carried  guns 
that  threw  three  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds  of  metal  to  the 
broadside.  The  Bichard's  guns  would  not  throw  more  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty-eight.  The  Serapis  was  manned  by 
three  hundred  and  seventeen  of  the  best  men  in  the  British 
naval  service,  commanded  by  one  of  the  bravest  and  most 
skillful  English  naval  ofB.fcers,  Captain,  later  Sir  Eichard  Pear- 
son. The  Richard  was  manned  by  a  mixed  crew  of  Frenchmen, 
Americans,  and  other  foreigners  picked  up  at  random,  embrac- 
ing, all  told,  three  hundred  and  ten  fighting  men.  In  the 
midst  of  the  action  Jones  had  to  displace  his  master  gunner 
on  account  of  incapacity,  if  not  of  insubordination.  Twice 
during  the  action  the  Richard  was  raked  by  her  consort,  the 
Alliance,  commanded  by  the  traitor  Landais,  and  was  other- 
wise so  riddled  as  to  become  nearly  unmanageable.  After  all 
was  over  she  sank  to  the  bottom.  At  no  time  was  she  a 
match  for  the  Serapis.  The  crucial  point  was  that  Jones  suc- 
ceeded in  locking  his  wretched  hulk  with  the  English  frigate 
hard  and  fast,  and  in  keeping  her  so,  and  then,  reducing  the 
battle  to  a  man-to-man  affair,  in  ending  with  the  complete 
ascendency  of  his  motley  tatterdemalions,  inspired  by  his 
dauntless  spirit  and  deployed  by  his  incomparable  skill. 

At  10  o'clock,  after  nearly  three  hours  of  fighting,  Jones's 
gun-room  battery  exploded.  His  ship  disabled  and  afire,  his 
flag  almost  shot  from  its  ensign  gaff  and  trailing  in  the  water 
astern,  amid  a  momentary  lull  in  the  action  the  American  was 
hailed  by  the  Englishman  and  asked  if  he  had  struck  his 
colors.  "  No ! "  cried  Jones,  "  I  have  only  just  begun  to  fight." 
—  John  Paul  Jones,  An  Address  by  Henry  Watterson  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  March  7,  1902. 

EXERCISES  IN  NARRATION 

(a)  Tell  in  three  hundred  words  the  story  of  John  Paul  Jones  and 
the  battle  off  Flamboro  Head. 

(b)  Refer  to  The  Arabian  Nights  and  tell  the  story  of  Ali  Baha.  and, 
the  Forty  Thieves. 


Exercises  in  Narration  203 

(c)  Point  of  View.  — Relate  the  following  in  the  Jirst  person,  and 
then  in  the  third  person. 

1.  Trace  the  course  of  a  drop  of  water  from  the  time  it  is 
drawn  up  from  the  ocean  into  the  clouds  and  carried  across  the 
country,  until  it  falls  as  rain  or  snow.  This  may  be  written 
in  plain  narration,  or  as  a  story.     Use  three  hundred  words. 

2.  Tell  in  your  own  way  a  story  that  has  been  handed 
down  in  your  family  and  told  you  by  your  grandfather  or 
grandmother,  or  repeated  by  some  other  member  of  the  family, 
as  having  been  so  told.     Use  three  hundred  words. 

(d)  Plot.  —  Make  a  careful,  interesting  outline  of  the  following 
plots. 

1.  Write  the  plot  or  outline  of  that  part  of  Silas  Mamer, 
where  his  gold  is  stolen,  and  Silas  discovers  his  loss. 

2.  Eead  Poe's  story  of  The  Purloined  Letter,  and  write  the 
plot  of  that  story. 

3.  Eead  that  part  of  Treasure  Island  telling  how  the  buc- 
caneers dig  where  the  treasure  had  been  buried,  and  find  that 
some  one  has  been  there  before  them.  Make  a  plot  of  the 
story. 

4.  Kead  As  Ton  Like  It,  and  prepare  a  plot  of  that  part  of 
it  which  describes  the  wrestling  match. 

5.  Read  the  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  and  write  the  plot  of  that 
part  of  the  story  where  Sidney  Carton  gives  up  his  life  to 
save  the  life  of  his  rival  in  love.  Make  the  story  include  the 
death  of  Sidney  Carton. 

(c)  Climax.  —  In  the  following,  pay  special  attention  to  the 
climax. 

1.  Report  or  invent  a  story  in  three  hundred  words,  that 
illustrates  some  lesson  in  manly  or  womanly  courtesy. 

2.  If  you  have  ever  had  a  narrow  escape,  tell  about  it  in 
seventy-five  words.  Do  not  use  the  word  /  more  than  two  or 
three  times. 

(/)  Suspense.  —  In  writing  the  following,  pay  special  attention  to 
keepinpuup  the  suspense. 


204  Effective  Narration 

1.  Detail  the  laughable  experiences  of  two  brothers,  or  a 
brother  and  a  sister,  left  alone  in  an  old  farmhouse  during  a 
heavy  snowstorm,  and  their  efforts  to  provide  supper  for 
a  party  of  young  friends  who  are  expected  to  arrive  in  a  sleigh 
at  nightfall. 

2.  Tell  from  memory  in  the  reporter's  style,  as  if  it 
had  happened  recently,  the  story  of  "Horatius  at  the 
Bridge,"  or  of  "The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,"  using  two  hun- 
dred words. 

{g)  Conclusion. — Make  a  good  story  of  each  of  the  following. 
Pay  special  attention  to  effective  conclusions. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  a  boy  who  loses  his  way  in  the  woods 
just  before  nightfall.  Think  out  some  pleasant  and  probable 
solution  of  his  difficulty,  and  write  it  in  three  hundred 
words. 

2.  Eead  Tommy  and  Grizel,  —  Do  you  like  the  ending? 
If  not,  think  out  a  better  way,  and  outline  it  in  five  hundred 
words. 

Qi)  Story -telling.  —  1.  Consult  the  Odyssey,  book  xii,  lines  1  to 
240,  Bryant's  translation,  and  tell  in  plain  and  easy-flowing  narrative 
how  Circe  warns  Ulysses  of  his  danger  and  that  of  his  crew,  in  pass- 
ing the  island  of  the  Sirens.  Tell  how  he  followed  her  instructions 
to  the  letter,  and  escaped.  Try  to  use  the  instructions  so  far  given 
as  to  effective  story-telling. 

2.  Read  The  Fall  of  the  Nibelungs,  Lettsom*s  translation,  15th 
Adventure.  Or  read  the  account  given  by  Wagner,  or  that  of  the 
Norroena  Romances  and  Epics.  Tell  the  story  with  special  thought 
for  the  principles  of  narration  given  in  this  chapter. 

This  tells  how  Siegfried  was  unintentionally  betrayed. 
Kriemhild  tells  her  uncle,  Hagan,  where  the  linden  leaf  fell 
when  Siegfried  bathed  in  the  dragon's  blood,  so  that  that  one 
spot,  between  his  shoulders,  was  vulnerable.  At  Hagan's 
suggestion,  she  sews  a  crosslet  upon  his  vesture  to  mark  the 
spot. 

(0  Applying  the  Principles  of  Effective  Story-telling. 


Exercises  in  Narration  205 

1.  Eead  Hamlet,  and  tell  the  story  of  the  appearance  of 
Hamlet's  father  to  the  young  Prince  of  Denmark. 

2.  Read  IvanJioe,  and  tell  the  story  of  the  archery  contest 
in  which  Locksley  displays  his  skill  with  the  bow. 

3.  Eead  JSilas  Marner,  and  tell  the  story  of  Silas  finding 
little  Eppie. 

4.  Referring  to  Treasure  Island,  sift  out  the  story  of  Long 
John  Silver,  and  tell  it. 

5.  Look  up  Tarn  O'Shanter,  and  give  the  story  briefly, 
omitting  no  important  detail. 

6.  Refer  to  Eobinson  Crusoe,  and  tell  briefly  the  story  of 
Crusoe  finding  the  footprints  in  the  sand. 

(/)  Special  Test  in  Narration.  Priam  Visit<i  Achilles  to  Beg  the 
Body  of  Hector.  —  Refer  to  the  Iliad,  book  xxiv,  Bryant's  translation, 
lines  342  to  850.  This  is  perhaps  the  finest  single  passage  in  the 
Iliad. 

Homer  describes  the  aged  Priam  as  kneeling  down  before 
his  foe,  and  in  deep  submission  kissing  the  hand  of  Achilles, 
as  he  begs  the  body  of  his  son.     He  makes  Priam  say, 

"  I  have  borne  what  no  man  else 
That  dwells  on  earth  could  bear,  —  have  laid  my  lips 
Upon  the  hand  of  him  who  slew  my  son." 
He  spake :  Achilles  sorrowfully  thought 
Of  his  own  father, 
and  relenting,  granted  the  boon  the  old  king  asked. 

The  first  draft  should  be  written  rapidly,  with  but  one  end  in 
view,  that  of  telling  the  story.  Corrections  can  come  later.  You 
may  have  to  rewrite  it  several  times  before  it  suits  you.  When  it  is 
submitted,  it  should  be  as  neatly  and  as  carefully  written  as  you 
know  how. 

Apply  all  the  suggestions  heretofore  given  as  to  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis.  Also  watch  the  plot  of  the  story,  and  pay  special 
attention  to  the  climax  and  the  conclusion. 

(k)  Continued  Short  Story.  —  Divide  the  English  Class  into  six 
groups,  making  them  equal,  if  possible,  in  writing  ability.  Name 
one  in  each  group  as  editor  for  that  division,  and  name  a  chief  editor. 


206  Effective  Narration 

The  chief  editor  may  be  chosen  from  any  group,  but  he  is  to  observe 
all  confidences  reposed  in  him  about  the  plots  of  the  respective  divi- 
sions. Each  group  editor  should  consult  with  the  chief  editor  regard- 
ing the  situations  planned  for  his  part  of  the  story. 

1.  Hold  a  round  table  conference  of  the  entire  class  concern- 
ing the  characters  to  be  introduced,  and  the  general  plot  of 
the  story.  Let  it  be  understood,  however,  that  each  group 
is  to  have  free  hand  in  shaping  its  own  chapter,  so  far 
as  consistent  with  the  requirements  of  the  story  as  it  pro- 
gresses from  chapter  to  chapter.  For  example,  no  leading 
character  should  be  "  killed  off "  in  the  early  chapters.  Let 
the  last  chapter  but  one  contain  the  denouements  leaving  it  to 
the  last  chapter  to  gather  up  the  threads  of  the  story.  .Let  the 
chapters  be  issued  once  a  week,  or  oftener. 

2.  Observe  the  rules  for  the  preparation  of  manuscript. 
Use  the  loose-leaf  manuscript  paper,  for  convenience  in  bind- 
ing. Let  all  the  chapters  be  written  uniformly.  This  may 
be  done  in  neat  longhand,  or  it  may  be  typewritten.  If 
typewritten,  the  work  should  be  done  by  a  capable  writer,  and 
all  the  chapters  written  by  the  same  person.  Where  a  school 
possesses  a  school  paper,  it  may  be  possible  to  have  the  story 
appear  as  a  serial.  In  some  cities,  the  local  newspaper  may 
be  willing  to  run  it  as  a  serial.  But  in  its  first  "  issue,"  the 
successive  chapters  should  be  read  in  class  by  the  best  reader 
or  readers  the  school  affords. 

3.  What  Each  Chapter  is  to  Do.  —  The  first  chapter  deals 
with  the  charactenzation.  The  last  chapter  but  one  contains 
the  climax,  and  the  last  chapter,  which  should  not  be  too 
long,  the  close.  The  second  should  be  the  chapter  where  the 
"plot  thickens."  The  second,  third,  and  fourth  chapters  will 
decide  the  fate  of  the  story.  They  must  keep  up  the  suspense, 
develop  the  plot,  and  especially  bring  out  the  characters,  and 
hurry  toward  the  climax. 

4.  The  One  Characteristic  of  the  Short  Story.  —  It  must  be 
short.  This  is  a  quality  which  the  chief  editor  is  to  require  of 
each  editor,  and  each  editor  is  to  require  of  his  group.     Count 


Exercises  in  Narration  ^07 

your  words  and  make  your  words  count.  If  necessary,  refer  to 
those  chapters  of  this  book  where  this  virtue  of  omission  is 
commended.  As  to  what  can  be  done  in  this  way,  refer  to 
Bret  Harte's  Condensed  Novels,  where  a  complete  story  is  told 
in  marvelously  brief  space.  Get  something  of  the  art  of  the 
headliner,  who  tells  the  whole  story  of  a  most  interesting  hap- 
pening in  a  few  words. 

(Z)  Essentials  of  the  Short  Story.  —  Before  getting  down  definitely 
to  work  on  the  story,  the  class  should  study  how  the  great  story 
writers  produce  the  effects  for  which  their  stories  are  noted.  Study- 
one  or  two  from  the  following  list :  Kipling,  Poe,  Jack  London,  Irving, 
O.  Henry,  Mark  Twain,  Hawthorne,  Dickens,  Stevenson,  H.  C.  Bun- 
ner,  Irvin  S.  Cobb. 

Study  (1)  how  they  introduce  their  characters,  and  interest 
you  in  what  happens  to  them.  (2)  How  they  manage  the  set- 
ting ;  that  is,  how  they  deal  with  the  time,  place,  and  social 
or  other  conditions  which  they  use  as  a  background  for  the 
action  of  the  story.  (3)  How  they  manage  the  plot,  or  series  of 
happenings  which  decides  the  fate  of  the  chief  characters. 
(4)  How  they  maintain  the  suspense,  after  they  have  once 
interested  you,  keeping  you  eager  to  see  how  it  is  going 
to  "turn  out."  (5)  How  they  bring  things  to  a  climax,  clear 
up  everything  to  your  satisfaction,  and  stop.  You  are  thus 
to  study  the  manner  of  introduction,  characterization,  the 
maintaining  of  suspense,  the  setting,  the  plot,  the  dimax,  and 
the  close. 

Review  of  the  Short  Story 

1.  What  short-story  writer  most  appeals  to  you?  Why 
do  you  prefer  his  stories  ?  How  does  he  manage  characteriza- 
tion ?  How  does  he  plan  to  keep  you  in  suspense  ?  What 
about  his  treatment  of  the  setting  f  Discuss  his  plots.  How 
does  he  bring  about  his  climaxes  f 

2.  How  does  an  outline  help  in  telling  a  story  ? 

3.  Sketch  the  plot  of  some  story  that  interests  you. 

4.  What  do  you  like  in  a  story  ? 


208 


EflFective  Narration 


Street  Scene,  Naples. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  209 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES. 

Street  Scene,  Naples.  —  Stoddard,  in  his  lectures  on  travel, 
speaking  of  Naples  says,  "  This  is,  indeed,  part  of  the  hallowed 
ground  of  ancient  Italy.  The  very  air  seems  tremulous  with 
classic  memories.'^ 

1.  Study  this  picture.     Give  your  impressions,  orally,  of  this  scene. 

2.  Write  a  story.  Use  this  scene  as  the  place.  Introduce  as  many 
characters  as  you  desire.     Put  interest  into  your  story. 

3.  " Drifting*'  Study  T.  Buchanan  Read's  poem  of  this  title.  It 
begins  with  the  lines, 

My  soul  to-day 
Is  far  away, 
Sailing  the  Vesuvian  Bay. 

Let  a  good  reader  read  it  or  recite  it. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
EFFECTIVE  DESCRIPTION 


The  best  descriptions  are  simple  and  concise.  — Blair. 


Description  Defined.  —  Description  is  an  effort  to  convey 
a  picture  by  means  of  words.  Effective  description  de- 
pends upon  (1)  clear  seeing;  (2)  a  consistent  point  of 
view ;  and  (3)  the  use  of  a  few  striking  features  rather 
than  a  long  list  of  uninteresting  details. 

Description  does  not  often  occur  alone,  and  as  a  general 
thing  it  is  not  extended.  Its  purpose  is  to  ornament  and 
strengthen  the  speech  or  writing  into  which  it  may  be 
woven.  When  sparingly  used  it  adds  niuch  both  to 
attractiveness  and  effectiveness. 

Word  Painting.  —  Description  is  akin  to  painting,  and 
the  term  word  painting  is  sometimes  employed  with  refer- 
ence to  the  images  produced  by  good  description.  How 
beautiful  a  picture  may  be  wrought  by  the  skillful  use 
of  words,  will  be  seen  by  a  study  of  Thackeray's 
much  admired  description  of  Beatrix  coming  down  the 
stairway  to  meet  Henry  Esmond,  in  the  novel  of  that 
name. 

From  one  of  these  doors,  a  wax  candle  in  her  hand,  and 
illuminating  her,  came  Mistress  Beatrix,  —  the  light  falling 
indeed  upon  the  scarlet  ribbon  which  she  wore,  and  upon  the 
most  brilliant  white  neck  in  the  world. 

210 


Clear  Seeing  £11 

Esmond  had  left  a  child  and  found  a  woman,  grown  beyond 
the  common  height ;  and  arrived  at  such  a  dazzling  complete- 
ness of  beauty,  that  his  eyes  might  well  show  surprise  and 
delight  at  beholding  her.  In  hers  there  was  a  brightness  so 
lustrous  and  melting,  that  I  have  seen  a  whole  assembly  follow 
her  as  if  by  an  attraction  irresistible  ;  and  that  night  the  great 
Duke  was  at  the  playhouse  after  Ramillies,  every  soul  turned 
and  looked  (she  chanced  to  enter  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
theater  at  the  same  moment)  at  her,  and  not  at  him.  She  was 
a  brown  beauty ;  that  is,  her  eyes,  hair,  and  eyebrows  and  eye- 
lashes were  dark  ;  her  hair  curling  with  rich  undulations,  and 
waving  over  her  shoulders  ;  but  her  complexion  was  as  daz- 
zling white  as  snow  in  sunshine  ;  except  her  cheeks,  which  were 
a  bright  red,  and  her  lips,  which  were  of  a  still  deeper 
crimson.  Her  mouth  and  chin,  they  said,  were  too  large  and 
full,  and  so  they  might  be  for  a  goddess  in  marble,  but  not  for 
a  woman  whose  eyes  were  fire,  whose  look  was  love,  whose 
voice  was  the  sweetest  low  song,  whose  shape  was  perfect 
symmetry,  health,  decision,  activity,  whose  foot  as  it  planted 
itself  on  the  ground  was  firm  but  flexible,  and  whose  motion, 
whether  rapid  or  slow,  was  always  perfect  grace,  —  agile  as  a 
nymph,  lofty  as  a  queen,  —  now  melting,  now  imperious,  now 
sarcastic,  —  there  was  no  single  movement  of  hers  but  was 
beautiful. 

So  she  came  holding  her  dress  with  one  fair  rounded  arm, 
and  her  taper  before  her,  tripping  down  the  stair  to  greet 
Esmond. 

—  Tlie  Histwy  of  Henry  Esmond,  book  ii.,  chapter  vii, 
William  Makepeace  Thackeray. 

Clear  Seeing. — The  first  essential  in  eifective  descrip- 
tion is  clear  seeing.  All  great  writers  and  speakers  who 
discuss  clear  seeing  agree  in  two  things.  First,  that  the 
ability  to  see  any  one  thing  distinctly  gives  the  ability  to 
see  everything.  And  second,  that  the  ability  thus  to  see 
clearly  gives  the  power  to  describe  it  so  that  others  may 


212  Eflfective  Description 

see  the  image  as  clearly  as  you  see  it.  The  masters 
of  human  speech  ascribe  much  of  their  skill  to  clear 
vision. 

Vivid  Memory  and  Imagination.  —  Akin  to  ability  to  see 
a  thing  clearly  when  it  is  first  presented  to  the  mind,  is 
the  power  of  vivid  memory  and  imagination.  You  should 
be  able  to  call  up  at  will  and  hold  in  the  mind  a  clear  vision 
of  the  thing  described^  and  pass  from  part  to  part  of  it  in  an 
orderly  way.  This  device  is  especially  helpful  to  the 
student  who  aspires  to  success  as  an  extemporaneous 
speaker. 

You  will  find  that  you  can  hold  the  attention  of  your 
audience  so  long  as  the  thing  j^ou  are  talking  about  is 
clearly  before  your  mind  in  a  concrete  way,  and  you  can 
analyze  it  and  pass  from  part  to  part,  and  see  the  relations 
clearly.  But  when  this  vision  goes,  you  will  find  that 
your  words,  as  one  gifted  speaker  expresses  it,  "become 
empty  and  rattling."  ^ 

There  is  marvelous  description  in  a  fragment  of  six 
lines,  each  of  which  contains  a  picture  of  great  beauty, 
the  whole  making  a  wonderful  series  of  pictures.  How 
clearly  must  the  poet  have  seen  these  pictures,  thus  to 
impress  them  upon  our  minds.  The  passage  is  quoted 
below. 

The  Eagle 

He  clasps  the  crag  with  hooked  hands  ; 
Close  to  the  sun  in  lonely  lands, 
Eing'd  with  the  azure  world,  he  stands. 

The  wrinkled  sea  beneath  him  crawls ; 
He  watches  from  his  mountain  walls, 
And  like  a  thunderbolt  he  falls. 

—  Alfred  Tennyson 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


213 


La  Jacquerie.  —  Rochegrosse. 
A  foretaste  of  the  French  Revolution. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

La  Jacquerie.  —  The    French    peasantry    in    1358    revolted 

against  the  excesses  of  feudalism.  They  pillaged  castles, 
murdered  their  occupants,  and  committed  outrages  of  all  kinds. 
Here,  the  mob  has  broken  down  the  outer  doors,  killed  their 
defenders,  and  now  stands  for  the  moment  abashed  at  the 
courage  of  the  mistress  of  the  castle  as  she  stands  against 
them,  while  endeavoring  to  encourage  the  huddling  group  be- 
hind her.  It  is  a  glimpse  of  the  storm  that  burst  in  all  its 
fury  four  hundred  years  later  in  the  French  Revolution. 

Describe  what  is  taking  place  in  the  picture. 

The  Point  of  View.  —  Next  in  importance  to  clear  seeing 
in  effective  description  is  the  point  of  view.  It  may  be 
actual  or  mental.  In  the  actual^  the  place  from  which  the 
writer  or  speaker  views  what  he  is  describing  is  called  the 


^14  Effective  Description 

point  of  view.  In  case  of  mental  point  of  view,  it  is 
determined  by  the  attitude  of  tlie  one  who  gives  the 
description.  As  a  general  rule,  the  point  of  view  should 
not  be  changed  during  the  description. 

Suppose  you  are  on  shipboard.  A  man  has  fallen  over- 
board, and  you  are  on  deck  when  the  boat  is  lowered. 
One  of  the  seamen  stands  in  the  bow  of  the  boat,  ready  to 
pick  him  up.  The  poor  fellow  in  the  water  is  struggling 
to  keep  afloat  until  the  ship's  boat  reaches  him.  After 
the  rescue  if  you,  the  seaman,  and  the  rescued  man  should 
each  describe  it,  no  two  stories  would  be  alike.  In  the 
actual  point  of  view,  yours  would  be  the  deck  of  the  ship, 
the  seaman's  would  be  the  bow  of  the  boat,  while  that  of 
the  man  overboard  would  be  in  the  water.  In  the  mental 
point  of  view,  to  you  it  would  be  an  incident  of  the 
voyage  ;  to  the  seaman  who  saved  him  it  would  be  part  of 
the  day's  work ;  but  to  the  man  overboard,  it  would  be 
life  or  death. 

Effective  Detail.  —  Nothing  adds  more  to  description 
than  the  employment  of  a  few  strikiiig  details.  It  is  a 
characteristic  of  modern  short-story  writers  thus  to  indicate 
in  a  few  words  what  it  would  take  pages  to  say  otherwise. 

Perhaps  no  one  is  more  a  master  of  this  method  of 
description  than  Rudyard  Kipling,  whose  training  as  a 
newspaper  writer  has  taught  him  to  make  every  word 
count,  and  to  say  in  as  few  words  as  possible  what  he  has 
to  say.     Note  this  in  the  brief  selection  given  below. 

His  father  was  Colonel  of  the  195th,  and  as  soon  as  Wee 
Willie  Winkie  was  old  enough  to  understand  what  Military 
Discipline  meant,  Colonel  Williams  put  him  under  it.  There  was 
no  other  way  of  managing  the  child.  When  he  was  good  for  a 
week,  he  drew  good-conduct  pay ;  and  when  he  was  bad,  he  was 
deprived  of  his  good-conduct  stripes.  Generally  he  was  bad,  for 
India  offers  many  chances  of  going  wrong  to  little  six-year-olds. 


Artistic  Description  215 

If  Wee  Willie  Winkie  took  an  interest  in  any  one,  the  for- 
tunate man  was  envied  alike  by  the  mess  and  '*:he  rank  and 
file.  And  in  their  envy  lay  no  suspicion  of  self-interest. 
"  The  ColonePs  son  "  was  idolized  on  his  own  merits  entirely. 
Yet  Wee  Willie  Winkie  was  not  lovely.  His  face  was  per- 
manently freckled,  as  his  legs  were  permanently  scratched, 
and  in  spite  of  his  mother's  almost  tearful  remonstrances  he 
had  insisted  upon  having  his  long  yellow  locks  cut  short  in 
the  military  fashion.  "I  want  my  hair  like  Sergeant 
TummiPs,"  said  Wee  Willie  Winkie,  and,  his  father  abetting, 
the  sacrifice  was  accomplished. 

—  Wee  Willie  Winkie,  Kipling. 

Here  Kipling  not  only  tells  what  sort  of  child  his  little 
hero  was,  but  lays  the  foundation  of  his  story,  the  key  to 
which  is  the  devotion  of  the  soldiers  of  his  father's  regi- 
ment to  the  willful  but  noble  youngster.  This  kind  of 
description  is  effective. 

Artistic  Description.  —  There  is  a  second  way  of  describ- 
ing a  person  or  thing,  by  what  may  be  termed  artistic  de- 
scription. That  is,  the  writer  makes  use  of  some  device  by 
which  the  quality  he  is  describing  is  brought  out  through 
some  unusual  stroke  of  descriptive  power. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  this  is  found  in  Homer's  de- 
scription of  Helen,  for  whose  sake  the  Trojan  war  was 
fought,  and  on  whose  account  Troy  fell.  Homer  does  not 
describe  her  in  words.  He  lets  the  old  men  of  Troy, 
nobles  and  warriors  of  other  days,  now  too  old  for  active 
warfare,  as  they  sit  upon  the  wall,  turn  and  look  after 
Helen  as  she  passes,  and  comment  upon  her  beauty. 

Such  were  the  nobles  of  the  Trojan  race 
Who  sat  upon  the  tower.     But  when  they  marked 
The  approach  of  Helen,  to  each  other  thus 
With  winged  words,  but  in  low  tones,  they  said : 


216  Effective  Description 

"  Small  blame  be  theirs,  if  both,  the  Trojan  knights 

And  brazen-mailed  Achaians  have  endured 

So  long  so  many  evils  for  the  sake 

Of  that  one  woman.     She  is  wholly  like 

In  feature  to  the  deathless  goddesses." 

—  The  Iliad,  book  iii,  lines  192-200. 

George  Eliot  in  Silas  Marner^  describing  the  entrance 
of  Dunstan  Cass  into  the  room,  notes  the  fact  that  the 
handsome  brown  spaniel  that  lay  on  the  hearth  retreated 
under  the  chair  in  the  chimney  corner.  Thus  by  artistic 
suggestion  she  describes  Cass. 

A  modern  writer  who  excels  in  artistic  suggestion  is 
O.  Henry.  If  within  reach,  it  might  be  well  to  study 
one  of  his  stories,  as  for  instance,  Whistling  Dick's 
Christmas  Stocking^  for  this  method  of  description. 

Description  by  Comparison.  —  A  third  method  of  descrip- 
tion is  b}^  comparison.  Its  use  is  closely  akin  to  what  is 
termed  figurative  language,  and  in  ordinary  speech  and 
writing  it  is  more  commonly  used  than  any  other  kind  of 
description. 

In  Stevenson's  Travels  with  a  Donkey.,  in  describing  the 
beauty  of  a  grove  of  Spanish  chestnut  trees,  he  says: 

To  look  down  upon  a  level  filled  with. these  knolls  of  foliage, 
or  to  see  a  clan  of  old  unconquerable  chestnuts  cluster  like 
Herded  elephants  upon  the  spur  of  a  mountain  is  to  rise  to 
higher  thoughts  of  the  powers  that  are  in  Nature. 

—  Travels  with  a  Donkey,  Stevenson. 

There  are  two  striking  comparisons  in  this  passage,  one 
found  in  the  word  clan.,  and  the  other  in  the  three  words 
in  italics.     Both  are  effective. 

Comparison  is  a  favorite  method  of  description  with 
Irving,  Thackeray,  Dickens,  Hugo,  Kipling,  and  all  good 
novelists.    The  description  of  Ichabod  Crane  is  an  example. 


Description  by  Enumeration  217 

Ichabod  was  a  suitable  figure  for  such  a  steed.  He  rode  with 
short  stirrups,  which  brought  his  knees  nearly  up  to  the  pommel 
of  his  saddle ;  his  sharp  elbows  stuck  out  like  grasshoppers' 
legs  ;  he  carried  his  whip  perpendicularly  in  his  hand,  like  a 
scepter ;  and  as  his  horse  jogged  on,  the  motion  of  his  arms  was 
not  unlike  the  flapping  of  a  pair  of  wings. 

—  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  Irving. 

Description  by  Enumeration.  —  A  fourth  method  is  de- 
scription by  enumeration.  This  is  a  common  method  in 
conversation,  but  it  is  likely  to  prove  tedious  and  unin- 
teresting unless  carefully  used.  It  is  but  fair  to  say, 
however,  that  masters  of  English  use  it  to  wonderful 
advantage. 

As  a  fine  example  of  this  method  of  description,  notice 
how  skillfully  Tennyson  uses  enumeration  in  his  picture  of 
Enoch  Arden,  as  he  looks  in  at  the  window  on  the  happi- 
ness of  a  home  rightly  his,  but  whose  pleasures  he  cannot 
share: 

But  Enoch  shunned  the  middle  walk  and  stole 
Up  by  the  wall,  behind  the  yew ;  and  thence 
That  which  he  better  might  have  shunned,  if  griefs 
Like  his  have  worse  or  better,  Enoch  saw. 

For  cups  and  silver  on  the  burnished  board 

Sparkled  and  shone  ;  so  genial  was  the  hearth : 

And  on  the  right  hand  of  the  hearth  he  saw 

Philip,  the  slighted  suitor  of  old  times, 

Stout,  rosy,  with  his  babe  across  his  knees ; 

And  o'er  her  second  father  stoopt  a  girl, 

A  later  but  a  loftier  Annie  Lee, 

Fair-hair'd  and  tall,  and  from  her  lifted  hand 

Dangled  a  length  of  ribbon  and  a  ring 

To  tempt  the  babe,  who  rear'd  his  creasy  arms, 

Caught  at  and  ever  miss'd  it,  and  they  laughed ; 


^18  Effective  Description 

And  on  the  left  hand  of  the  hearth  he  saw 
The  mother  glancing  often  toward  her  babe, 
And  turning  now  and  then  to  speak  with  him, 
"Her  son,  who  stood  beside  her  tall  and  strong. 
And  saying  that  which  pleased  him,  for  he  smiled. 

—  Enoch  Arden,  Tennyson. 


Note  the  enumeration  in  John  Ridd's  description  of 
Lorna  Doone,  in  the  novel  of  that  name. 

I  had  never  heard  so  sweet  a  sound  as  came  from  between 
her  bright  red  lips,  while  there  she  knelt  and  gazed  at  me ; 
neither  had  I  ever  seen  anything  so  beautiful  as  the  large,.dark 
eyes  intent  upon  me,  full  of  pity  and  wonder.  Then  I  wan- 
dered with  my  hazy  eyes  down  the  black  shower  of  her  hair ; 
and  where  it  fell  on  the  turf,  among  it,  like  an  early  star,  was 
the  first  primrose  of  the  season.  And  since  that  day  I  think 
of  her  when  I  see  an  early  primrose. 

—  Lorna  Doone,  R.  D.  Blackmore. 

Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  in  Description.  —  The 

qualities  of  unity^  coherence^  and  emphasis  are  important 
everywhere,  but  doubly  so  in  description. 

Unity  is  secured  (1)  by  the  consistent  use  of  a  proper 
point  of  view ;  and  (2)  by  the  elimination  of  unimportant 
details. 

Coherence  is  obtained  by  the  right  arrangement  of 
the  material  you  keep,  after  cutting  out  all  surplus 
material. 

Umphasis  will  take  careful  study.  He  who  puts 
m,ost  meaning  into  fewest  words  will  gain  most  in  em- 
phasis. 

Prepare  a  topical  outline.,  bringing  out  all  the  important 
points  that  have  been  dealt  with  in  this  chapter. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


219 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Colonial  Entrance  to 
Pringle  House.  —  This  is  a 
piece  of  detail  showing  a 
Colonial  outside  stairway 
at  the  side  of  the  Pringle 
House,  one  side  of  it  cov- 
ered with  a  clambering 
rose  in  full  bloom.  Let  the 
student  take  one  or  more 
of  the  following  exercises 
based  on  this  picture. 

(a)  Study  of  the  Picture.  — 
Study  the  picture  carefully 
with  a  view  to  mastering  its 
distinctive  points  of  beauty. 
Search  among  the  best  homes 
within  your  reach  for  some 
fine  stairway  or  portal. 
Sketch  it,  or  take  a  snapshot 
of  it.  Describe  the  Pringle 
stairway  by  comparing  it 
with  the  other. 

(6)  A  Fine  Doorway.  —  What  in  your  judgment  is  the  finest 
example  of  artistic  doorway  in  your  neighborhood,  or  within  your 
knowledge?  Give  an  account  of  it.  If  possible,  submit  a  photo- 
graph of  it.     Oral,  three  minutes. 

(c)  A  Touch  of  Romance.  —  It  is  in  the  days  of  the  Revolution. 
Cornwallis,  who  has  held  his  headquarters  here  until  now,  must 
move  northward  to  Virginia,  where  he  will  be  hemmed  in  by 
Washington  and  Lafayette.  One  of  his  staff,  a  young  English 
officer,  is  bidding  farewell  to  a  young  lady  of  the  household  with 
whom  he  has  fallen  in  love.  They  are  at  the  head  of  the  steps. 
She  plucks  a  rose  and  gives  it  to  him  for  a  keepsake.  Tell  the  story 
simply. 

(rf)  A  Reunion  on  These  Stairs.  —  It  is  in  1825.  Marquis  de  Lafay- 
ette has  returned  to  the  land  to  which  as  a  youth  he  gave  his  sword. 
Out  on  these  steps,  while  the  gay  throng  within  are  dancing,  Lafay- 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Fooie. 

Colonial  Entrance,  Pringle  House, 
Many  a  secret  has  been  told  on  these  steps. 


^20  Effective  Description 

ette  and  a  comrade  of  the  old  days,  a  Virginia  officer,  smoke  and  talk 
together  of  "  those  glorious  days."     Tell  the  story. 

(e)  A  Scrap  of  Unwritten  History.  —  You  are  a  member  of  the 
Pringle  household,  a  student  home  for  the  holidays.  You  have  just 
stepped  outside,  and  are  standing  at  the  head  of  these  steps.  Hear- 
ing voices  below,  you  discover  Aaron  Burr  and  some  one  you  do  not 
know,  deep  in  conversation.  You  are  forced  to  hear  enough  to  let 
you  into  something  of  his  secret.     Let  the  story  end  dramatically. 

EXERCISES  IN  EFFECTIVE  DESCRIPTION 

(a)  Clear  Seeing.  —  In  this  set  of  exercises  in  description  concen- 
trate your  attention  on  seeing  what  you  are  to  describe. 

1.  Walk  rapidly  past  some  important  building,  and  as 
you  go  by,  note  what  you  can  of  its  appearance.  Describe  it  so 
clearly  that  the  class  can  tell  to  what  building  you  refer. 

2.  Of  two  brothers,  one  is  rich,  the  other  is  poor.  Contrast 
the  homes  of  the  two  men,  using  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
three  hundred  words. 

3.  Study  some  bird,  as  for  instance  the  mocking  bird,  the 
cardinal,  the  robin,  the  oriole,  the  thrush,  or  the  raincrow.  De- 
scribe its  appearance  and  habits  in  such  a  way  that  the  class 
may  recognize  it  without  being  told  its  name. 

4.  Describe  what  you  can  see  from  your  window  at  school, 
or  at  home,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  your  hearers  a  clear  im- 
pression of  the  scene.  Examine  what  you  have  written.  If 
the  description  is  not  vivid,  make  it  so. 

(b)  Point  of  View.  A  dual.  —  In  the  following  exercises  be  sure  not 
to  change  your  point  of  view  during  the  description. 

1.  Scott,  in  Ivanhoe,  represents  the  wounded  Ivanhoe  as 
within  a  besieged  castle.  From  a  window  in  the  tower,  Re- 
becca describes  to  him  the  progress  of  the  besieging  party. 
Refer  to  this  description  and  give  it  in  your  own  words,  main- 
taining the  point  of  view. 

•  2.  Refer  to  the  Iliad,  book  iii,  lines  204  to  304,  Bryant's 
translation.  As  the  Grecian  hosts  swarm  against  the  walls  of 
Troy,  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  looks  down  upon  them.  Helen, 
formerly  wife  of  King  Menelaus  of  Sparta,  now  the  wife  of 


Exercises  in  Effective  Description         2^1 

Priam's  son  Paris,  approaches.  Priam  with  kingly  courtesy 
bids  her  sit  at  his  side.  As  he  notes  the  Grecian  princes  from  the 
wall,  Helen  tells  something  about  each,  for  she  knows  them  all. 
Reproduce  the  scene,  being  careful  to  maintain  the  point  of  view. 
3.  You  are  on  the  shore  of  a  small  lake,  while  your  friend 
is  fishing  from  a  canoe.  There  is  a  sudden  strike  and  a  fine 
bass  is  hooked.  In  the  exciting  struggle,  the  canoe  is  upset. 
Tell  what  happens,  describing  it  from  where  you  stand. 

(c)  Point  of  Vieiv.  Mental.  —  It  is  usually  harder  to  keep  the 
mental  than  the  actual  point  of  view.     Try  it  in  the  following  exercises. 

1.  Describe  an  old  house,  with  a  fine  avenue  of  maples 
leading  up  to  it.  Give  your  description  from  the  point  of  view 
of  a  real  estate  man  describing  it  to  the  owner  who  has  not 
recently  seen  it ;  and  then  to  a  prospective  buyer. 

2.  Describe  the  house  above  referred  to  from  the  point  of 
view  of  a  boy  or  girl  who  once  lived  in  the  old  mansion,  return- 
ing to  it  after  an  absence  of  many  years. 

3.  From  the  point  of  view  of  a  reporter  for  the  town  paper, 
write  an  article  of  four  hundred  words,  giving  an  account  of  the 
activity  displayed  by  a  thoroughly  organized  circus  when  mov- 
ing to  a  new  point,  after  an  exhibition  at  your  town. 

(d)  Point  of  Vieio.  Changing.  —  Sometimes  you  describe  a  thing 
from  a  changing  point  of  view.  Suppose  you  are  moving  rapidly  past 
the  old  house  above  referred  to,  either  on  board  train,  or  in  ah  automo- 
bile. You  would  see  one  side,  then  the  front,  and  then  the  other 
side.  In  describing  it  from  this  changing  point  of  view,  your  descrip- 
tion would  be  influenced  by  this  change. 

1.  Imagine  yourself  in  the  bow  of  a  boat,  going  upstream. 
Describe  what  you  see  from  this  ever  changing  point  of  view. 

2.  Think  of  yourself  as  riding  in  an  aeroplane.  Describe 
what  you  see,  keeping  in  mind  your  rapidly  changing  point  of 
view. 

3.  Describe  the  escape  of  a  pet  canary,  or  of  a  squirrel. 
Describe  what  you  see,  observing  your  changing  point  of  view, 
as  you  follow  your  escaping  pet. 


222  Eflfective  Description 

(e)  Effective  Details.  —  In  the  exercises  suggested  below,  the  one 
thing  to  be  avoided  is  a  multiplicity  of  details.  Seize  upon  some  one 
characteristic  that  shall  in  suggestive  phrase  describe  what  you  are  try- 
ing to  bring  before  the  mind  of  your  listeners  or  readers.  If  you  are 
familiar  with  any  one  of  the  following,  let  your  description  be  brief, 
but  striking. 

1.   Noted   Buildings.  —  (a)    The    Boston   Public   Library; 

(b)  The  Congressional  Library  ;  (c)  The  Corcoran  Art  Gallery  ; 

(d)  The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art ;  (e)  The  Cincinnati  Art 
Museum ;  (/)  The  Capitol,  at  Albany,  New  York ;  (g)  The 
Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  or  the  Union  Station  building  there  ; 
or  your  State  Capitol ;  (h)  The  Capitol,  at  Harrisburg,  Penn- 
sylvania, or  at  Austin,  Texas,  or  at  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  or 
the  New  State  University  at  Seattle,  Washington ;  (i)  The 
City  Hall,  Philadelphia,  or  the  Field  Building,  Chicago ;  (j)  The 
Stadium,  at  Leland  Stanford ;  or  the  Old  Church,  Charleston,  S.C. 

2.  If  you  have  climbed  Pikes  Peak,  in  Colorado,  or  Lookout 
Mountain,  at  Chattanooga,  Tennessee,  discuss  the  flowers  you 
would  find  in  going  from  foot  to  summit  of  the  mountain. 
You  may  read  up  on  this  subject,  but  you  must  not  use  the 
material  thus  found  just  as  you  find  it.  Use  the  facts,  but  let 
your  article  be  original.     Study  vividness  and  brevity. 

3.  If  you  have  visited  Atlantic  City,  describe  in  two  hun- 
dred words  ,some  one  of  the  following : 

(a)    On  the  Board  Walk ;  (b)   A  sail  out  to  the  fishing  banks  ; 

(c)  Hauling  the  nets  on  the  piers ;  (d)   A  plunge  in  the  surf ; 

(e)  An  afternoon  on  the  piers. 

(/)  Artistic  Description.  —  Before  attempting  this  exercise,  read 
carefully  what  it  said  in  the  text  about  this  form  of  description.  Aim 
at  two  things,  —  brevity  and  unexpected  effects. 

1.  You,  are  invited  to  a  fancy  dress  party,  all  the  guests  to 
be  in  Colonial  garb.  You  rummage  through  the  old  cedar  chests, 
or  whatever  holds  these  "  treasures  "  of  the  olden  time.  De- 
scribe your  search  in  not  more  than  fifty  words. 

2.  Describe  the  costume  or  gown  you  decide  to  wear,  as 


Exercises  in  Effective  Description        223 

indicated  in  the  paragrapli  above.     Eely  on  some  descriptive 
touch  that  shall  convey  your  meaning  to  your  hearers  or  readers. 

{g)  Description  by  Comparison.  —  In  the  exercises  following,  de- 
scribe by  comparison.  If  you  want  to  make  the  description  humorous, 
comparison  will  lend  itself  readily  to  it.     Try  it. 

1.  Tell  of  a  day's  work  in  the  summertime  in  the  country, 
on  the  part  of  boys  or  girls  unaccustomed  to  it. 

*2.  You  have  five  dollars  from  your  father  for  your  birth- 
day, with  the  injunction  to  spend  it  to-day,  and  let  him  know 
to-night  what  you  did  with  it.  Tell  how  you  spent  your 
money.     Use  comparison. 

Qi)  Bits  of  Description. —  In  the  following  exercises  you  may  develop 
your  description  by  any  method  you  please.     Be  brief. 

1.  Describe  the  arrival  of  an  automobile  outing  party  at  the 
door  of  a  hotel  where  you  are  a  guest.  Limit  the  time  to  two 
minutes. 

2.  Describe  an  automobile  trip,  "cross  country,"  as  the 
party  stops  at  a  spring  by  the  wayside,  and  lights  a  fire  to  pre- 
pare coffee  for  lunch. 

3.  Imagine  yourself  seated  in  a  theater.  Two  opposing 
high  schools  have  played  a  game  of  football,  resulting  in  a  tie. 
The  rival  teams  are  seated  in  boxes,  opposite  each  other.  De- 
scribe the  work  of  the  "  cheer  leader." 

4.  What  is  the  best  marching-club  you  know,  and' how  does 
it  go  at  its  work  ? 

(i)  Acquiring  a  Vocabulary  of  Words  Useful  in  Description. —  Some- 
times a  study  of  words  will  add  much  to  your  power  of  description. 
Prepare  the  following  lists  carefully  and  preserve  them  for  later  use. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  fifty  words  that  describe  or  relate  to  the 
movement  of  water. 

Think  of  the  brook,  stream,  river ;  or  of  the  lagoon  in  the 
park  ;  or  of  the  pond,  lake,  bayou  or  ocean  ;  or  of  the  sand-bar  or 
the  seashore.  Or  think  of  the  swift-flowing  current,  the  rapids, 
the  waterfall,  or  the  cataract.     As  you  call  these  to  mind,  jot 


224  EflFective  Description 

down  the  words  that  occur  to  you,  describing  the  motion  of 
water.  If  necessary,  you  may  consult  Lanier's  Song ,  of  the 
Chattahoochee^  or  Tennyson's  Brookj  or  Southey's  How  Does  the 
Water  Come  Down  at  Lodore  ?  or  Blackmore's  Lorna  Doone,  where 
John  Eidd  fights  for  his  life  in  the  "slide"  in  Bagworthy 
river.  Note  any  and  all  words  descril^ing  the  motion  of  water. 
Mark  Twain's  Life  on  the  Mississippi  will  prove  suggestive,  in 
his  descriptions  of  the  varying  moods  of  that  mighty  streajn. 
Bead  Ruskin's  Modern  Painters,  especially  in  his  Of  Truth  of 
Water,  for  a  marvelously  careful  study  of  the  movement  of  water. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  words  that  could  be  applied  to  a 
landscape. 

3.  Give  ten  words,  each  denoting  some  shade  of  red. 

4.  Give  ten  words  describing  some  degree  of  happiness. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  twenty-five  words  that  describe  walking, 
or  the  manner  in  which  we  walk. 

(J)  Special  Test  for  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  in  Descriptive 
Narrative.  —  While  you  are  at  all  times  to  watch  these  qualities,  pay 
special  attention  to  them  here. 

1.  Odyssey,  book  xii,  lines  1  to  311,  Bryant's  translation, 
omitting  all  reference  to  the  Sirens^. 

This  is  an  unusually  vivid  piece  of  descriptive  narrative. 
Take  pains  to  discard  everything  but  the  story,  and  tell  it  in 
simple  and  direct  narrative. 

2.  For  a  modern  example  of  powerful  description,  refer  to 
Tolstoi's  Master  and  Man,  describing  a  fight  with  the  elements 
in  a  winter  storm.     Master  the  story,  and  tell  it. 

(k)  Problems  in  Description.  —  Describe  a  certain  person,  place,  or 
building,  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  the  one  you  have  in  mind 
without  saying  who  or  what  it  is.  The  test  of  your  success  is  the 
ability  of  the  class  to  recognize  the  subject  from  your  description. 

1.  You  have  a  friend,  known  to  most  of  the  pupils  of  the 
class.  Describe  him  so  that  your  classmates  will  recognize 
the  description. 

2.  Take  some  well-known  historical   character.    Describe 


Exercises  in  Effective  Description         ^^5 

Ms  traits,  or  his  deeds,  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  the  class  to 
know  who  it  is. 

3.  Take  a  prominent  building  in  the  down-town  district  of 
your  city.     Describe  it  without  mentioning  its  name. 

4.  Take  some  character  from  literature  read  in  class. 
Describe  this  personage  without  mentioning  the  name,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  to  enable  your  classmates  to  recognize  the  in- 
dividual. Do  not  stick  too  close  to  the  story  as  read  in  class. 
Try  to  see  your  chosen  character  acting  as  you  think  he  or  she 
would  act  under  other  conditions  than  those  set  forth  in  the 
play  or  story  you  have  read.  For  instance,  add  a  chapter  to 
Silas  Marner,  or  to  the  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 

(l)  Longer  Thejnes.  Analysis  and  Outlining.^  Essays.  —  Let  each 
student  study  some  essay  with  a  view  to  its  careful  analysis.  Prepare  an 
outline  which  shall  contain  the  gist  of  the  article.  Submit  this  out- 
line to  the  editorial  committee,  who  are  to  correct  it  and  submit  it  to 
the  instructor  in  English.  When  this  outline  is  handed  back  to  you 
with  suggestions  or  corrections,  make  a  new  draft  of  your  outline. 
Write  an  expansion  of  this  outline. 

While  you  are  not  limited  to  the  Suggestive  List  given 
below,  you  will  find  excellent  material  there  for  analysis,  out- 
lining and  expanding  this  outline  into  a  readable  paper.  If 
your  chosen  essay  will  admit  of  it,  you  may  write  as  much  as 
five  thousand  words. 

Addison,  Joseph  On  Westminster  Abbey 

Bennett,  Arnold  Literary    Taste,    and    How   to 

Form  It,  ch.  v 
Bryce,  James  How  Public  Opinion   Rules  in 

America,  from  the  American 

Commonwealth,  ch.  Ixxviii 
Burke,  Edmund  On  Taste 

Carlyle,  Thomas  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo  On  Manners 

Hazlitt,  William  On  Persons  One  Would  Wish  to 

Have  Seen 


1  Suggested  by   The  Beport  of  the  Committee  on  English,  N.  E.  A. 
Commission  on  Reorganization  of  High  Schools. 


2^6 


Effective  Description 


Hunt,  Leigh 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel 

Lamb,  Charles 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington 

Montaigne 

Plutarch 

PoE,  Edgar  Allan 

Sainte-Beuve 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis 

Swift,  Jonathan 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace 
Thoreau,  Henry  David 
Van  Dyke,  Henry 


On  the  Deaths  of  Little  Children 

Life  of  Addison 

A  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig 

On  Milton 

Of  Bookes 

Life  of  Caesar 

On  the  Philosophy  of  Furniture 

What  is  a  Classic? 

A  Defence  of  Poetry 

Defence  of  Poesy 

Of  Truth  of  Intercourse 

Hints  Toward  an  Essay  on  Con- 
versation 

On  Jonathan  Swift 

On  Walking  • 

A  Wild  Strawberry,  in  Fisher- 
man's Luck 


(m)  Longer  Themes.  Analysis  and  Outline.  Stories.  —  From  the  sug- 
gested list  presented  below,  let  each  student  select  one  story.  This  he 
is  to  analyze  carefully,  and  then  prepare  an  outline  which  shall  con- 
tain the  gist  of  the  story.  Submit  this  outline,  carefully  arranged,  to 
the  editorial  committee^  who  are  to  study  it,  make  such  suggestions  as 
they  may  deem  necessary,  and  band  it  to  the  instructor  in  English.  It 
may  then  be  handed  back  to  the  writer.  On  receipt  of  the  revised 
outline,  let  the  student  make  a  new  draft  of  his  outline.  He  will 
then  expand  the  story  from  the  outline. 

Suggested  List  of  Stones.  —  Take  any  one  from  the  list  here 
given,  for  analysis,  outline,  and  expanding  into  a  good  story. 


Barrie 

Blackmore 

Bronte 

Bunyan 

Cervantes 

De  Morgan 

Dickens 

Dumas 

Eliot 

Hawthorne 

Hugo 


Sentimental  Tommie 
Lorna  Doone 
Jane  Eyre 
Pilgrim's  Progress 
Don  Quixote 
Alice-for-Short 
Our  Mutual  Friend 
Three  Musketeers 
Adam  Bede 
The  Scarlet  Letter 
Les  Miserables 


Exercises  in  Effective  Description        227 


Reade  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth 

Scott  The  Heart  of  Midlothian 

Stevenson  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde 

Stockton  Rudder  Grange 

Twain  Huckleberry  Finn 

(n)  Stories  Read  Aloud  Before  the  Class.  —  Let  one  or  more  of  the 
following  stories  be  read  aloud  in  the  English  class.  Let  the  class 
listen,  analyze,  make  an  outline  of  the  story,  and  submit  it  to  the 
editorial  committee  for  their  revision.  They  will  hand  the  corrected  out- 
line to  the  instructor  in  English,  whowill  return  it  to  the  writer.  This 
outline  will  then  be  rewritten.     Write  the  stoiy  from  this  new  outline. 

Suggestive  List,  Stories  to  be  Bead  Aloud.  —  Take  any  one  of 
the  list  here  given,  to  be  read  aloud.  Write  a  brief  summary 
of  the  story. 


Arnold 

Browning 

Burns 

Coleridge 

DeQuincey 

Homer  (Bryant) 

Ingelow 

Irving 

Longfellow 

O.  Henry 

Shakespeare 

Tennyson 


Sohrab  and  Rustum 

The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin 

Tarn  O'Shanter's  Ride 

Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner 

Flight  of  a  Tartar  Tribe 

The  Death  of  Hector,  Iliad,  book  xxii 

High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire 

Rip  Van  Winkle 

Courtship  of  Miles  Standish 

The  Third  Ingredient 

As  You  Like  It 

Lady  Clare 


(o)  Presenting  the  Gist  of  a  Lecture  or  Address.  —  Let  an  address 
be  given  on  some  topic  of  interest  to  the  English  class.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  class  will  listen,  and  analyze  the  lecture.  Each  will 
then  prepare  an  outline  of  what  was  said,  giving  the  gist  of  it. 
This  outline  will  be  referred  to  the  editorial  committee  for  criticism. 
It  will  then  go  to  the  instructor  in  English,  who  will  distribute  these 
outlines  to  the  writers  with  his  suggestions.  The  outlines  will  then 
be  rewritten.  After  this,  let  the  paper  be  expanded,  thus  giving  an 
accurate  and  thoughtful  report  of  the  address. 

Note.  —  If  some  good  actor  is  playing  at  your  local  theater  he  will 
doubtless  be  pleased  to  give  an  address  on  the  study  of  Shakespeare,  on 
invitation.     Or  he  might  take  some  one  character  and  study  it  with  you. 


228 


EflFective  Description 


Diego  Garcia  de  Paredes.  —  Dore  :    Don  Quixote. 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Don  Quixote.  —  Gustave  Dor^  was  a  famous  illustrator.  Here 
is  one  of  his  illustrations  for  Don  Quixote,  by  Cervantes,  that 
wonderful  piece  of  sarcasm  which  laughed  chivalry  off  the 
stage.     It  represents  the  hero  Diego  Garcia  de  Paredes,  a  man 


Vocational  Training  229 

of  singular  courage,  and  of  such  mighty  strength  that  with  one 
hand  he  could  stop  a  mill  wheel  in  its  most  rapid  motion.  Here 
he  is  defending  single  handed  the  passage  of  a  bridge  against 
a  great  army. 

Cervantes  makes  a  certain  inn-keeper,  completely  given  over 
to  the  reading  of  these  impossible  romances,  say  when  one  of 
his  guests  denounced  his  stories  as  a  pack  of  lies,  "  Lies  !  They 
can't  be  lies  !     Why,  sir,  are  they  not  in  print  ?  " 

One  of  the  humorous  touches  in  this  picture  is  the  unconcern 
of  the  hero's  mighty  steed  in  the  midst  of  awful  combat.  He 
stands  at  the  other  end  of  the  bridge,  quietly  eating  grass ! 

Artist  or  Writer.  —  Prepare  a  talk  on  either  Dor6  or  Cervantes. 

Describe  the  Picture.  —  Study  the  picture,  and  describe  it.  What  are 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  Dore's  style,  as  shown  in  this  picture  ? 

Books  Written  in  Prison.  —  This  book  was  written  in  prison.  So 
were  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  by  John  Bunyan,  and  A  History  of 
the  World,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  one  of 
these  books. 

Vocational  Training.  —  You  soon  discover  in  studying 
vocational  training  that  all  pupils  do  not  care  for  the  same 
things.  Your  ambitions  are  not  alike.  Endeavor  to  dis- 
cover what  your  tastes  are,  and  perfect  yourself  in  the 
things  that  will  be  helpful  in  that  direction.  Of  course 
you  may  change  your  mind,  but,  in  many  cases,  pupils 
of  the  high  school  begin  to  know  what  they  would  like 
to  do  when  they  get  out  into  that  larger  world  that  lies 
beyond  the  high  school  and  the  higher  institutions  of 
learning. 

Are  your  tastes  literary?  Do  you  incline  to  writing? 
Some  will  at  once  say,  JVo;  but  there  are  others  who 
have  an  ambition  to  try  their  hands  at  writing  stories.  If 
you  are  one  of  these,  take  the  following  exercises  on  story 
writing.  They  are  designed  especially  for  those  who  have 
literary  tastes  or  ambitions. 


230  Effective  Description 

EXERCISES   IN  VOCATIONAL   TRAINING 

(a)  Short  Story  Work.  —  Bring  to  this  work  an  ambition  to  succeed 
as  a  writer,  and  as  a  result  of  this,  a  determined  purpose  to  master 
the  mechanical  side  of  literary  work. 

1.  Study  the  way  in  which  any  recent  writer  has  become  suc- 
cessful. —  Take  Jack  London  for  instance.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  a  writer  of  such  promise  passed  away  before  he  had  time 
to  do  his  greatest  work,  but  his  success  was  unusual.  It  was 
not,  however,  accidental. 

He  tried  many  kinds  of  work  before  he  made  up  his  mind 
definitely  that  he  was  going  to  write  for  a  livelihood.  He 
went  at  it  with  the  same  vigor  that  had  always  characterized 
him.  His  stories  came  back  to  him,  but  he  determined  to 
know  why.  Taking  the  magazines  that  had  rejected  his  arti- 
cles or  stories,  he  studied  what  they  did  accept;  to  discover 
what  they  would  accept.  This  is  what  you  must  do,  if  you  are 
to  succeed. 

2.  Submit  your  finished  work  to  the  editorial  committee.  — 
The  members  of  this  committee  will  doubtless  be  able  to  be  of 
material  assistance,  and  your  instructor  in  English  is  a  mem- 
ber ex  officio  of  that  committee. 

3.  Take  these  comments  in  the  right  spirit.  —  Do  not  be  afraid 
to  recast  your  work,  if  they  suggest  it.  No  matter  how  good  it 
is,  it  will  become  better  by  what  you  omit.  Count  your  words, 
and  make  your  words  count. 

4.  Rewrite  your  story  and  send  it  to  a  magazine.  —  While 
waiting  for  it  to  come  back,  do  two  things  :  (1)  Study  the  mag- 
azine to  which  you  sent  your  story,  to  see  why  it  may  come 
back ;  and  (2)  write  another  story.  Shape  your  story  to  suit 
the  magazine  you  are  writing  for,  and  keep  on  writing. 

(6)  How  to  Write  a  Story. ^  —  Take  some  character  that  strikes  you. 


1  The  Beport  of  the  Committee  on  English^  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on 
Reorganization  of  High  Schools,  says,  "  Expression  in  writing  includes, 
for  those  who  have  literary  tastes  or  ambitious,  ability  to  write  a  short 
Story,  or  other  bit  of  imaginative  composition,  with  some  vigor  and  per- 


Exercises  in  Vocational  Training         231 

Study  this  character  until  you  know  him  or  her  well.  Think  what 
he  would  do,  under  certain  circumstances.  Think  your  story  out  be- 
fore you  put  a  word  on  paper.  Do  not  try  a  story  founded  on  fact. 
Use  your  imagination,  and  let  it  be  your  story.  When  you  know  your 
story,  write  it.  As  you  write,  the  story  may  shape  itself.  Let  it  do 
so.     In  a  sense,  a  good  story  tells  itself. 

(c)  Writing  a  Play.  —  Much  that  is  said  as  to  the  story  also  con- 
cerns the  play.  But  in  the  play  you  must  say  as  little  as  possible,  in 
order  to  make  it  mean  as  much  as  possible.  Study  some  successful 
modern  play,  but  write  yours  some  other  way.  Study  the  moving 
picture  play  to  see  how  much  can  be  said  without  saying  anything. 
Present  your  play  at  school. 


sonality  of  style  and  in  proper  foi-m  to  be  submitted  for  publication; 
and  to  arrange  suitable  stories  in  form  for  dramatic  presentation."  ITiis 
is  quoted  with  apjiroval  by  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New 
York. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
EFFECTIVE  EXPOSITION 


The  value  of  exposition  rests  on  the  thoroughness  of  the  thought 
that  precedes  it.  —  Arlo  Bates. 


Exposition  Defined.  —  Exposition  is  an  explanation,  or  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  one  who  understands  a  subject  to  make 
that  subject  plain  to  the  minds  of  his  hearejrs  or  readers. 

If  you  direct  a  stranger  to  the  post  office,  or  show  one  of 
your  classmates  the  mechanism  of  a  new  fishing  reel,  you  are 
giving  an  exposition.  If  you  demonstrate  a  problem  in  al- 
gebra or  a  theorem  in  geometry,  or  give  a  careful  definition 
of  some  term  in  botany  or  zoology,  you  are  using  exposition. 

Methods  of  Exposition.  —  There  is  great  variety  in  the 
methods  by  which  exposition  is  applied.  The  most  im- 
portant are  (1)  definition ;  (2)  illustration  or  example ; 
(3)  demonstration ;  (4)  comparison  or  contrast ;  (5)  the 
use  of  details. 

Exposition  by  Definition.  —  Exposition  by  definition  ex- 
plains a  term  by  establishing  the  limits  to  the  meaning  of 
that  term.  An  exact  or  logical  definition  includes  all  the 
members  of  a  class  referred  to  by  the  term  defined,  and 
excludes  everything  that  does  not  belong  to  that  term. 

The  Definition  of  a  Gentleman 

...  It  is  almost  the  definition  of  a  gentleman  to  say  he  is 
one  who  never  inflicts  pain.  This  description  is  both  refined 
and,  as  far  as  it  goes,  accurate.  He  is  mainly  occupied  in 
merely  removing  the  obstacles  which  hinder  the  free  and  un- 

232 


Exposition  by  Definition  233 

embarrassed  action  of  those  about  him ;  and  he  concurs  with 
their  movements  rather  than  takes  the  initiative  himself.  His 
benefits  may  be  considered  as  parallel  to  what  are  called  com- 
forts or  conveniences  in  arrangements  of  a  personal  nature ; 
like  an  easy  chair  or  a  good  fire,  which  do  their  part  in  dispel- 
ling cold  and  fatigue,  though  nature  provides  means  of  rest 
and  animal  heat  without  them. 

The  true  gentleman  in  like  manner  carefully  avoids  what- 
ever may  cause  a  jar  or  a  jolt  in  the  minds  of  those  with 
whom  he  is  cast, — all  clashing  of  opinion,  or  collision  of  feel- 
ing, all  restraint,  or  suspicion,  or  gloom,  or  resentment;  his 
great  concern  being  to  make  every  one  at  his  ease  and  at  home. 
He  has  his  eyes  on  all  his  company ;  he  is  tender  towards  the 
bashful,  gentle  towards  the  distant,  and  merciful  towards  the 
absurd.  He  can  recollect  to  whom  he  is  speaking ;  he  guards 
against  unseasonable  allusions,  or  topics  which  may  irritate ; 
he  is  seldom  prominent  in  conversation,  and  never  wearisome. 
He  makes  light  of  favors  while  he  does  them,  and  seems  to  be 
receiving  when  he  is  conferring. 

He  never  speaks  of  himself  except  when  compelled,  never 
defends  himself  by  a  mere  retort ;  he  has  no  ears  for  slander 
or  gossip,  is  scrupulous  in  imputing  motives  to  those  who  inter- 
fere with  him,  and  interprets  everything  for  the  best.  He  is 
never  mean  or  little  in  his  disputes,  never  takes  unfair  advan- 
tage, never  mistakes  personalities  or  sharp  sayings  for  argu- 
ments, or  insinuates  evil  which  he  dare  not  say  out. 

If  he  engages  in  controversy  of  any  kind,  his  disciplined  in- 
tellect preserves  him  from  the  blundering  discourtesy  of  better, 
perhaps,  but  less  educated  minds  ;  who,  like  blunt  weapons, 
tear  and  hack  instead  of  cutting  clean,  who  mistake  the  point 
in  argument,  waste  their  strength  on  trifles,  misconceive  their 
adversary,  and  leave  the  question  more  involved  than  they  find 
it.  -He  may  be  right  or  wrong  in  his  opinion,  but  he  is  too 
clear-headed  to  be  unjust ;  he  is  as  simple  as  he  is  forcible,  and 
as  brief  as  he  is  decisive. 

—  The  Idea  of  a  University,  by  John  Henry  Newman. 


234 


Effective  Exposition 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Independence     Hall. 

—  In  this  modest 
building  the  Conti- 
nental Congress 
adopted,  signed,  and 
proclaimed  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independ- 
ence. Up  in  this 
belfry  hung  the  Lib- 
erty Bell,  proclaiming 
liberty  to  all  the  land, 
to  all  the  inhabitants. 
In  Congress  Hall,  on 
the  second  floor, 
Washington  delivered 
his  Farewell  Address. 

(a)  Describe  the  hall. 

(b)  Visit  to  Independ- 
ence Hall.  —  Arrange  a 
visit  to  Independence 
Hall,  if  you  live  near 
enough  so  to  do.  Ar- 
range a  program  on  your 
return,  describing  the 
visit.  If  you  choose,  let 
a  good  reader  give  either 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  or  the  Farewell  Address  as  a  part 
of  the  program.     If  too  long,  let  a  selection  from  either  be  read. 

(c)  The  Liberty  Bell.  —  The  Liberty  Bell  has  crossed  the  continent, 
in  order  to  allow  its  being  seen  at  some  national  exposition.  It  may 
be  that  you  had  the  privilege  of  seeing  it,  or  taking  part  in  a  parade 
in  its  honor.     If  so,  describe  it. 

Exposition  by  Illustration.  —  You  explain  by  illustration 
when  you  take  an  example  of  something  readily  under- 
stood, and  let  the  light  in  on  your  subject  by  means  of 


Independence  Hall. 

At  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.   The  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  was  adopted  here. 


Exposition  by  Demonstration  235 

this  example.  Sometimes  a  good  story,  an  apt  allusion, 
or  a  fitting  quotation  will  make  excellent  illustrative  ma- 
terial. In  the  example  quoted  below,  the  last  statement 
made  is  the  illustration.  It  seems  to  throw  a  flood  of 
light  upon  the  preceding  statements. 

Words  and  Ideas 

The  common  fluency  of  speech  in  many  men  and  most 
women,  is  owing  to  a  scarcity  of  matter  and  a  scarcity  of 
words  ;  for  whoever  is  a  master  of  language,  and  hath  a  mind 
full  of  ideas,  will  be  apt  to  hesitate  upon  the  choice  of  both ; 
whereas  common  speakers  have  only  one  set  of  ideas,  and  one 
set  of  words  to  clothe  them  in  ;  and  these  are  always  ready  at 
the  mouth ;  so  peojyle  come  faster  out  of  church  when  it  is  ahnost 
empty y  than  when  a  crowd  is  at  the  door. 

—  Jonathan  Swift. 

Exposition  by  Demonstration.  ^—  When  demonstration  is 
used  in  exposition,  it  requires  a  more  careful  and  complete 
inquiry  into  all  the  parts  of  the  subject  than  is  necessary 
in  other  methods  of  exposition.  The  ^explanation  must  be 
so  clear  as  to  be  beyond  question. 

For  instance,  when  a  salesman  demonstrates  a  new  auto- 
mobile to  a  prospective  purcliaser,  he  takes  pains  to  bring 
out  all  the  good  points  of  the  machine,  and  to  meet  all 
possible  objections  against  it.  The  demonstration  given 
below  by  Van  Dyke  is  unusually  good. 

How  to  Make  a  Smudge 

The  proper  way  to  make  a  smudge  is  this  :  begin  with  a  very 
little,  lowly  fire.  Let  it  be  bright  but  not  ambitious.  Don't 
try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

Then  gather  a  good  supply  of  stuff  which  seems  likely  to 
suppress  fire  without  smothering  it.  Moss  of  a  certain  kind 
will  do,  but  not  the  soft,  feathery  moss  that  grows  so  deep 


236  EflFective  Exposition 

among  the  spruce  trees.  Half-decaying  wood  is  good ;  spongy, 
moist,  unpleasant  stuff,  a  vegetable  wet  blanket.  The  bark  ol 
dead  evergreen  trees,  hemlock,  spruce,  or  balsam,  is  better  still. 
Gather  a  plentiful  store  of  it.    But  don^t  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

Let  your  fire  burn  a  while  longer  ;  cheer  it  up  a  little.  Get 
some  clear,  resolute,  unquenchable  coals  aglow  in  the  heart  of 
it.     Don't  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

Now  pile  on  your  smouldering  fuel.  Fan  it  with  your  hat. 
Kneel  down  and  blow  it,  and  in  ten  minutes  you  will  have  a 
smoke  that  will  make  you  wish  you  had  never  been  born. 

That  is  the  proper  way  to  make  a  smudge.  But  the  easiest 
way  is  to  ask  your  guide  to  make  it  for  you. 

— Fisherman'' s  Luck,  Henry  Van  Dyke. 

Exposition  by  Comparison  or  Contrast.  —  Exposition  by 
comparison  aims  to  give  an  idea  of  something  which  is  as 
yet  unknown  to  the  hearer  or  reader,  by  referring  to  some- 
thing which  is  already  understood  or  known  by  him. 
When  the  comparison  points  out  features'  which  are  un- 
like, the  exposition  is  said  to  be  by  contrast. 

EXAMPLES  OF  EXPOSITION  BY  COMPARISON  OR  CONTRAST 

(1)  By  Comparison. 

Newly  Acquired  Freedom 

There  is  only  one  cure  for  the  evils  which  newly  acquired 
freedom  produces ;  and  that  cure  is  freedom.  When  a  prisoner 
first  leaves  his  cell  he  cannot  bear  the  light  of  day ;  he  is  un- 
able to  discriminate  colors  or  recognize  faces.  But  the  remedy 
is  not  to  remand  him  into  his  dungeon,  but  to  accustom  him  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  blaze  of  truth  and  liberty  may  at 
first  dazzle  and  bewilder  nations  which  have  become  half  blind 
in  the  house  of  bondage.  But  let  them  gaze  on,  and  they  will 
soon  be  able  to  bear  it.  In  a  few  years  men  learn  to  reason. 
The  extreme  violence  of  opinion  subsides.  Hostile  theories 
correct  each  other.     The  scattered  elements  of  truth  cease  to 


Exposition  by  the  Use  of  Details        237 

contend,  and  begin  to  coalesce.     And  at  length  a  system  of 
justice  and  order  is  educed  out  of  the  chaos. 

—  Macaulay. 
(2)  By  Contrast. 

The  Value  of  Sincerity 

There  is  nothing  in  the  world  which  needs  so  little  decora- 
tion or  which  can  so  well  afford  to  spurn  it  altogether,  as  the 
absolutely  genuine.  Imitations  are  likely  to  be  exposed  unless 
carefully  ornamented.  Too  much  embellishment  generally 
covers  a  blemish  in  the  construction.  It  therefore  happens 
that  the  first-rate  invariably  rejects  ornament,  and  the  second- 
rate  invariably  puts  it  on.  The  difference  in  the  two  can  be 
discovered  at  short  range,  and  safety  from  exposure  lies  only 
in  imperfect  examination.  If  the  vision  is  clear  and  the  in- 
spection careful,  there  is  no  chance  for  a  sham  ever  to  be  taken 
for  the  genuine  ;  and  that  is  why  it  happens  that  among  all  the 
forms  of  activity  in  this  very  active  age,  there  is  no  struggle 
more  sharp  than  that  of  the  first-rate  to  be  found  out  and  of  the 
second-rate  not  to  be.  It  is  easier  to  conceal  what  a  thing  is 
than  to  prove  it  to  be  what  it  is  not.  One  requires  only  conceal- 
ment, the  other  demonstration.  Sooner  or  later  the  truth  will 
appear.  Sometimes  the  decorations  will  fall  off,  and  then  the 
blemish  will  appear  greater  because  of  the  surprise  of  finding  it. 

—  On  Lincoluj  Frank  S.  Black. 

Exposition  by  the  Use  of  Details.  —  Sometimes  the  mere 
enumeration  of  details  proves  to  be  unusually  effective  in 
the  explanation  of  a  point.  It  requires,  however,  rare 
skill  to  use  this  method  of  exposition.  The  following  are 
good  examples : 

(1)  The  Destruction  of  the  Camatic 

For  eighteen  months,  without  intermission,  this  destruction 
raged  from  the  gates  of  Madras  to  the  gates  of  Tanjore ;  and 
so  completely  did  these  masters  in  their  art,  Hyder  Ali,  and  his 
more  ferocious  son,  absolve  themselves  of  their  impious  vow, 
that  when  the  British  armies  traversed,  as  they  did,  the  Camatic, 


238  EflFective  Exposition 

for  hundreds  of  miles  in  all  directions,  through  the  whole  line 
of  their  march  they  did  not  see  one  man  —  not  one  woman  —  not 
one  child  —  not  one  four-footed  beast  of  any  description  what- 
ever !  One  dead,  uniform  silence  reigned  over  the  whole  region. 
—  Speech  i7i  the.  Trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  Edmund  Burke. 

(2)  What  Constitutes  a  State  ? 

What  constitutes  a  state  ? 
Not  high  raised  battlement  or  labored  mound, 

Thick  wall  or  moated  gate ; 
Not  cities  proud  with  spires  and  turrets  crowned ; 

Not  bays  and  broad-armed  ports, 
Where,  laughing  at  the  storm,  rich  navies  ride ; 

Not  starred  and  spangled  courts, 
Where  low-browed  baseness  wafts  perfume  to  pride. 

No ;  —  men,  high-minded  men, 
With  powers  as  far  above  dull  brutes  endued 

In  forest,  brake,  or  den. 
As  beasts  excel  cold  rocks  and  brambles  rude,  — 

Men,  who  their  duties  know, 
•  But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing,  dare  maintain. 

Prevent  the  long-aimed  blow,. 
And  crush  the  tyrant  while  they  rend  the  chain : 

These  constitute  a  state ; 
And  sovereign  Law,  that  state's  collected  will, 

O'er  thrones  and  globes  elate. 
Sits  empress,  crowning  good,  repressing  ill. 

—  Sir  William  Jones. 

The  Theme  Outline  ^  in  Exposition.  —  To  put  a  thing  so 
that  it  will  be  understood,  you  must  arrange  it  in  logical 
order,  using  an  outline  for  this  purpose. 

A  theme  outline  is  a  condensed  form  of  notes.     It  should 


1  Considerable  practice  should  be  given  in  making  topical  outUnes  and 
in  developing  compositions  from  them. 

^-  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


Essentials  of  the  Outline  239 

consist  of  three  parts :  the  introduction,  the  body,  and  the 
conclusion.  (1)  The  introduction  should  call  interested 
attention  to  the  subject.  (2)  The  body  of  the  outline 
should  discuss  the  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out 
fully  the  points  you  have  in  mind.  (3)  The  conclusion 
should  impress  these  points  forcibly  upon  the  mind  of 
your  hearers  or  readers. 

An  Experiment.  —  Take  an  empty  glass  and  a  saucer  nearly 
full  of  water.  Take  a  piece  of  stiff  writing  paper,  twist  it 
slightly,  and  set  fire  to  one  end  of  it.  Thrust  this,  still  burn- 
ing, into  the  inverted  glass,  and  put  the  glass,  mouth  down, 
quickly  into  the  saucer.  Note  and  record  what  happens.  Use 
this  theme  outline. 

I.   Preliminary  statement. 

II.   The  equipment :  apparatus  and  materiaL 

III.  The  method :  that  is,  what  you  did. 

IV.  The  results,  as  you  saw  them. 

V.   Your  conclusion,  from  what  happened. 

Essentials  of  the  Outline.  —  The  three  essentials  of  the 
theme  outline  are  unity,  proportion,  and  clearness. 
(1)  Unity  demands  that  your  exposition  should  deal 
with  one  thing,  and  with  that  alone.  (2)  Proportion 
requires  that  you  give  much  attention  to  important  details 
and  little  attention  to  unimportant  details.  (3)  Clearness 
demands  that  you  make  yourself  understood. 

Preparing  the  Outline.  —  In  preparing  the  theme  outline 
for  an  exposition,  think  your  subject  over  carefully  and 
jot  down  the  points  as  they  occur  to  you.  Go  over  these 
notes,  boil  them  down,  and  say  what  you  want  to  say  in 
as  few  words  as  possible.  Then  use  the  card  plan,  as 
explained  on  pages  81-89,  to  decide  what  is  the  best 
possible  arrangement  for  the  points  you  want  to  use. 

Make  a  topical  outline  covering  all  the  points  brought 
out  in  this  chapter,  and  be  prepared  to  recite  from  it. 


^40 


Effective  Exposition 


Photograph  by  Frank  C.  Sage. 
Perfect  Style  in  the  High  Jump. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Perfect  Style.  —  This  picture  is  well  named.  The  athlete 
who  is  coming  over  in  the  high  jump  shows  perfect  style.  He 
is  not  only  doing  his  work,  but  doing  it  well.  One  of  the 
amusing  things  in  watching  a  field  or  track  meet  is  the  awk- 
wardness of  some  men  who  are  wonders  in  their  class.  But 
here  is  a  fellow  who  is  as  graceful  as  a  man  dare  be.  He 
lends  dignity  to  what  is  a  fine  achievement. 

(a)  What  is  Worth  Doing  at  A II,  is  Worth  Doing  Well.  — This  applies 
to  the  work  of  a  mechanic,  or  to  that  of  a  needlewoman,  or  of  an  orator, 
and  certainly  to  the  work  of  a  writer.  Use  this  as  the  title  of  a  theme, 
and  write  a  two-hundred  word  article. 

(6)  What  is  the  Difference  between  an  Artisan  and  an  Artist?  —  This 
question  is  worth  answering.  Take  time  to  make  sure  of  your  facts, 
and  prepare  a  theme  on  this  topic. 


EXERCISES  IN  OUTLINING 

(a)  Make  an  outline  showing  how  the  woodpecker  is  adapted  to 
its  mode  of  life. 


.     Exercises  in  Outlining  241 

1.  Explain  what  is  its  mode  of  life. 

A  solitary  woodland  bird,  resident  throughout  the  year; 
makes  its  nest  in  trees,  which  it  hollows  out  for  the  purpose ; 
feeds  upon  bugs,  insects,  worms,  larvae;  and  sometimes,  but 
seldom,  on  berries  and  fruits.  It  climbs  trees,  zig-zag  fashion, 
or  spirally,  from  bottom  to  top,  tapping  vigorously,  whence  its 
name  of  woodpecker,  or  in  one  species,  yellow-hammer. 

2.  Explain  how  it  is  adapted  to  this  mode  of  life. 

Being  a  climbing  bird,  it  has  "  climbing  toes,"  two  toes  in 
front  and  two  in  rear,  claws  curving,  large,  and  strong; 
feet  and  legs  unusually  strong.  The  whole  make-up  of  the 
bird  seems  to  indicate  its  fitness  for  an  insectivorous  life. 
Head,  hammerlike ;  bill,  sharp  and  long,  with  a  tongue  exces- 
sively protrusive,  long  and  wormlike,  with  the  end  barbed ; 
the  tongue  secretes  a  sticky  substance.  Tail,  wedge-shaped, 
with  twelve  tail-feathers,  concave  ended,  strong,  elastic,  stiff, 
and  spiny,  to  brace  the  body  while  climbing,  or  when  tapping 
or  pounding.  "  When  a  woodpecker  brings  up  against  a  tree, 
even  one  comparatively  smooth,  its  certainty  of  hold  is  a  bit 
of  magic.  Then  when  it  braces  itself  and  sets  to  work  to 
hammer  a  hole,  its  tail-feathers  bend  and  spread,  buttressing 
themselves  against  every  roughness,  etc."  Its  hammering  or 
pecking  noise  tends  to  drive  the  insects  and  worms  to  the  sur- 
face, and  within  reach. 

(b)  Make  an  outline  explaining  how  the  mole  is  adapted  to  its 
mode  of  life. 

(c)  Study  the  common  cat,  and  make  an  outline  showing  how  it 
is  adapted  to  its  mode  of  life.  Do  this  without  reference  to  any  book, 
or  suggestion  from  any  one. 

(d)  Prepare  the  outline  for  an  exposition  on  anyone  of  the  follow- 
ing topics.  Read  up  on  the  subject  or,  if  you  can,  think  it  out.  Know 
your  subject  fully,  although  this  exercise  calls  for  the  outline  only. 

1.  Tell  how  fish  are  hatched  and  transported  to  lakes  and 
rivers  by  the  United  States  or  by  the  state  hatcheries. 

2.  Tell  how  to  make  a  camp-fire. 

3.  Explain  carefully  "  first  aid  to  ^he  injured,"  in  case  of 


242  Effective  Exposition 

bums.  What  would  you  do  if  a  companion  were  burned,  and 
you  were  the  only  one  with  him  at  the  time,  if  you  were  at  a 
distance  from  a  physician  ? 

(e)  Give  the  outline  of  an  exposition  on  either  of  the  following 
topics : 

1.  Having  found  a  bee  tree,  explain  how  to  get  at  and  save 
the  honey,  at  the  same  time  guarding  against  injury  from  bee- 
stings. 

2.  By  an  unfortunate  accident,  you  have  broken  a  plate 
highly  valued  by  your  family  on  account  of  its  history.  Tell 
how  to  put  it  together  so  as  to  save  it. 

EXERCISES  IN  EXPOSITION 

(a)  Simple  Explanation.  —  Write  a  brief  exposition  on  any  of  the 
following  subjects,  bearing  in  mind  the  principles  and  illustrations 
given  in  this  chapter. 

1.  The  influence  of  the  coach  on  the  standing  of  the  high 
school  basket  ball  team. 

2.  The  civil  service ;  how  to  enter  it ;  what  it  offers ;  its 
advantages  and  disadvantages. 

3.  How  to  make  a  ^igure-4  trap.  Select  two  boys,  one  who 
does,  and  one  who  does  not  understand  the  construction  of  this 
form  of  trap.  Let  the  one  who  knows  present  an  exposition 
with  diagram,  and  then  as  proof  that  his  exposition  is  effective, 
let  the  other  boy  make  a  ligure-4  trap  that  will  work,  and  dem- 
onstrate it  before  the  class. 

(h)  The  Five  Forms  in  Exposition.  —  In  the  exercises  which  follow, 
let  the  student  prepare  an  exposition  under  each  head,  studying  care- 
fully what  is  said  in  this  chapter  as  to  each  of  the  five  forms  given. 
Let  the  expositions  in  this  set  be  from  outline. 

1.  Exposition  by  Definition.  1.  The  duties  of  a  deputy 
sheriff. 

2.  The  duties  of  "  the  officer  of  the  day/'  in  a  military 
camp. 


Exercises  in  Exposition  243 

3.  The  work  of  an  Indian  guide  on  a  fishing  trip,  where  a 
guide  is  necessary. 

4.  The  work  of  the  grand  jury. 

5.  The  work  of  a  Red  Cross  nurse  in  time  of  war. 

II.  Exposition  by  Illustration  or  Example.  1.  The  value 
of  firmness.     Illustrate  from  United  States  history. 

2.  The  value  of  a  purpose  in  life.  Illustrate  by  an  exam- 
ple taken  from  the  College  Requirements  in  English. 

3.  The  block  system,  in  preventing  wrecks  on  railroads.' 
Illustrate  by  a  description  of  this  form  of  "  safety  first "  con- 
struction, from  the  Scientific  American,  or  other  magazine. 

III.  Exposition  by  Demonstration.     1.   How  to  broil  a  steak. 

2.  How  to  make  a  Welsh  rabbit. 

3.  How  to  draw  a  book  from  the  public  library. 

4.  How  to  make  a  book  rack,  or  a  picture  frame. 

5.  How  to  make  a  gavel,  or  a  rolling-pin. 

6.  How  to  make  and  operate  a  Punch  and  Judy  show. 

lY.  Exposition  by  Comparison  or  Contrast,  1.  Hunting 
quail  with  a  pointer  dog,  or  with  a  setter. 

2.  How  to  tell  a  robin  from  a  thrush. 

3.  Basket  ball  versus  football. 

4.  Country  life  as  compared  with  city  life. 

5.  A  humorous  comparison  of  suburban  life  and  the  hard- 
ships it  is  supposed  to  entail,  with  the  comfort  and  pleasure 
of  life  in  a  large  city. 

y.  Exposition  by  the  Use  of  Detail.  1.  The  making  of  cider 
on  the  farm. 

2.  Setting  the  table  for  a  light  luncheon  for  a  party  of 
four. 

3.  How  to  set  up  and  manage  a  fishing  camp. 

4.  First  aid  to  the  injured,  where  a  boy  has  a  cinder  lodged 
in  his  eye,  and  there  is  no  physician  within  reach.  Give  the 
steps  in  detail. 

5.  You  have  found  a  pool  where  you  are  certain  a  large 
bass  has  his  habitat.     Give  the  steps  by  which  you  go  to  work 


244  EflFective  Exposition 

to  catch  liim  with  hook  and  line,  iinally  landing  him.  Explain 
the  kind  of  bait  you  use,  how  you  use  it,  the  hooking,  the 
fight,  the  playing  him,  the  landing,  and  all. 

(c)  Special  Exercise  in  Unity,  Proportion,  and  Clearness.  —  In  the 
exercises  which  follow,  adopt  any  form  of  exposition  you  please,  or 
use  more  than  one  form,  if  this  seems  best.  Test  all  your  work  to  see 
if  it  possesses  unity,  proportion,  and  clearness. 

Look  up  your  information  carefully  and  get  it  well  in  hand.  Have 
clearly  in  mind  just  what  you  intend  to  say,  or  prepare  an  outline  and 
follow  it  closely.  Discuss  in  two  hundred  words  any  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing topics : 

1.  The  duties  of  the  sheriff  of  your  county. 

2.  How  an  electric  motor  works. 

3.  How  wheat  is  harvested  in  the  Northwest. 

4.  How  to  break  a  colt. 

5.  What  is  the  use  of  a  clearing  house,  and  how  is  it  con- 
ducted? 

(rf)  Expositions  from  Outlines.  —  As  in  the  preceding  exercise  make 
sure  of  your  information,  getting  it  anywhere  you  can.  Work  from 
an  outline.  Write  two  hundred  or  more  words.  Take  any  one  of 
the  following : 

1.  What  is  the  best  fuel  for  your  own  neighborhood?     Di? 
cuss  wood,  coal,  coke,  oil,  artificial  gas,  natural  gas,  etc.    Lool 
up  authorities  on  relative  cost.     Or  ask  some  prominent  manu- 
facturer, if  you  know  one  personally.     Use  trade  papers. 

2.  Discuss  the  "  survival  of  the  fittest." 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  writ  of  quo  warranto  ?  " 

4.  What  are  the  functions  of  a  Board  of  Education  ? 

5.  Some  of  the  problems  of  domestic  life.  The  relation  of 
mistress  and  servant ;  household  expenditures,  how  to  deal  with 
them ;  shopping ;  treatment  of  clerks  in  a  store  ;  proper  dress  ; 
women's  clubs  ;  self-improvement ;  social  duties. 

(e)  Problems  in  Exposition.  —  The  following  problems  in  exposition 
are  to  be  illustrated  by  appropriate  diagrams  or  figures.  In  getting 
your  information,  refer  to  encyclopedias,  recent  text-books,  scientific  or 
trade  papers  or  magazines,  or  whatever  else  will  afford  the  latest  and 


Exercises  in  Exposition  245 

most  correct  information  on  the  topic  you  choose  to  explain. 
Select  one  topic  from  the  list  given  below,  and  write  three  hundred 
or  more  words. 

1.  Explain  how  to  construct  an  electric  motor.  Submit  the 
diagram  of  a  motor,  such  as  is  advertised  for  the  present  season. 
Let  some  student  make  a  motor,  following  your  diagram. 

2.  Tell  how  to  construct  a  cement  pavement.  Let  another 
pupil  construct  a  square  foot  or  square  yard  of  such  pave- 
ment, following  your  exposition  and  diagram. 

3.  Detail  the  steps  in  making  a  florist's  "  cutting,"  say  of  a 
geranium  or  chrysanthemum,  for  propagating.  Draw  diagrams, 
showing  how  it  looks  when  first  made;  when  it  begins  to 
^'  callus  " ;  when  the  rootlets  begin  to  show ;  and  when  it  is 
ready  for  transplanting.  Explain  how  to  transplant  it.  Let 
some  girl  follow  your  instructions,  and  bring  the  plant  later,  to 
show  its  growth. 

4.  Tell  how  to  make  a  cold  frame,  with  necessary  direc- 
tions and  diagrams  for  using  it.  Make  your  description 
such  that  a  boy  or  girl  who  so  desires  may  make  one,  following 
your  exposition. 

5.  Explain  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  locks. 
Show  by  diagram  just  how  the  ship  passes  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  level.  Let  another  pupil,  following  your  explanation, 
construct  a  model  lock,  using  water,  a  miniature  boat,  and 
making  the  locks  of  wood,  strawboard,  or  other  convenient 
material. 

(/)  Expository  Reports.  —  With  the  aid  of  the  material  in  your 
public  library,  report  in  three  hundred  words  on  the  following  topics. 
Where  original  drawings  or  diagrams  will  help  to  make  your  meaning 
clearer,  use  them. 

1.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  storm  center.  Illustrate  by 
some  instance  of  recent  storm  or  tempest. 

2.  Explain  how  weather  reports  are  made,  and  tell  what  you 
can  as  to  the  reliability  of  this  system,  and  its  advantages  to 
commerce  and  agriculture. 


246  Effective  Exposition 

3.  Report  on  the  Bertillon  system  of  identifying  criminals. 
It  will  be  interesting  to  give  some  examples  where  this  sys- 
tem has  been  helpful  to  the  authorities  in  running  down 
criminals. 

4.  Explain  how  the  general  public  may  take  advantage  of 
the  opportunities  afforded  to  procure  by  purchase  or  otherwise, 
any  public  lands  opened  to  settlers.^ 

5.  Refer  to  LippincotVs  Magaziney  August,  1915.  Study 
carefully  an  article  by  Jay  Hambidge  entitled,  "Choosing  a 
Life  Work :  The  Profession  of  Art."  Give  the  substance  of 
the  article  from  notes. 

{g)  General  Exposition.  —  Refer  to  the  encyclopedia  and  other 
reference  books  of  your  public  library,  and  to  the  Readers'  Guide  and 
Poole's  Index,  for  material  to  use  in  preparing  papers  or  talks  on  the 
following  themes.     Use  three  hundred  words. 

1.  Explain  the  regional  bank  system  of  the  United  States. 
Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  country  ?  When  does  it  fur- 
nish aid  ?  What  safeguards  does  it  give  to  the  country  as  a 
whole,  not  previously  afforded  by  our  national  banking  sys- 
tem ? 

2.  Explain  the  laws  relating  to  self-defense.  When,  if 
ever,  is  a  man  justified  in  taking  the  life  of  another  in  self- 
defense  ? 

3.  Explain  how  a  ship  tacks  against  the  wind.  Make  a 
diagram. 

4.  Explain  how  to  sharpen  a  knife,  so  as  to  enable  one  who 
has  heretofore  failed  to  sharpen  his  knife,  to  do  so.  To  illus- 
trate, take  a  dull  knife  and  sharpen  it,  explaining  as  you  do  so, 
just  what  you  are  doing,  and  why.  Let  the  one  to  whom  you 
explain  sharpen  his  knife. 

5.  Explain  the  construction  of  the  submarine,  as  used  in 
modern  naval  warfare.  What,  if  any,  protection  is  there 
against  it?  Make  a  diagram.  Use  about  five  hundred 
words. 


1  The  United  States  Government  will  give  full  information  on  request 


Exercises  in  Exposition  247 

(h)  Testing  for  Effectiveness  in  Special  Forms  of  Exposition.  —  Both 
while  you  write,  and  after  you  have  written  at  least  three  of  the  fol- 
lowing exercises,  make  a  special  test  as  to  clearness.  If,  after  apply- 
ing the  principles  insisted  upon  in  this  chapter,  your  work  is  clear, 
there  will  be  no  doubt  as  to  its  effectiveness. 

1.  Definition.  —  Define  one  of  the  terms  in  the  following 
list.  Give  it  in  your  own  words,  but  get  your  information 
anywhere  you  please.  Limit  it  to  ten  words.  Illiteracy;  pre- 
paredness; tennis;  a  touchdown;  a  suridial. 

2.  Advertisement.  —  Prepare  an  advertisement  suitable  for 
use  in  a  magazine,  or  in  the  electric  cars,  exploiting  some 
article  that  is  largely  advertised.  Make  it  striking.  Use 
fifty  words. 

3.  Character  Sketch.  —  What  is  your  idea  of  the  character 
of  Silas  Marner,  or  Kip  Van  Winkle,  or  Julius  Caesar,  or 
Othello,  or  some  other  personage  in  your  Required  Readings  ? 
Use  less  than  two  hundred  words. 

4.  Abstract.  —  Boil  down  some  piece  of  composition  work 
you  have  already  written,  no  matter  how  long  it  is,  —  the 
longer  the  better,  —  to  less  than  one  hundred  words,  saying  all 
you  said  in  your  first  paper,  but  saying  it  better  in  your  briefer 
paper.  , 

5.  Book  Review.  —  Look  up  the  correct  form  of  a  book 
review  in  the  Literary  Digest,  or  the  Outlook,  or  other  maga- 
zine. Give  your  impression  of  some  book  you  have  read  or 
studied,  as  for  instance  Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson.  Use  two 
hundred  words  or  less. 

6.  Notebook.  —  Submit  a  neatly  written  and  carefully  pre- 
pared notebook  used  by  you  in  your  class  work  in  English. 

7.  Secretary's  Report.  —  Submit  your  report  of  a  meet- 
ing of  some  kind  in  which  you  acted  as  secretary.  Or 
write  the  report  of  some  meeting,  as  though  you  were  secre- 
tary. 

8.  Editorial.  —  Write  an  editorial,  expository  in  form,  of 
one  hundred  words,  on  "  Clean-up  Day."  Or  choose  any  sub 
ject  you  please. 


248 


Effective  Exposition 


Cascades,  Columbia  River,  Oregon. 
Showing  Fish  Wheel. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Cascades,  Columbia  River,  Showing  Fish  Wheel.  —  The  view  is 
taken  from  the  Oregon  side,  looking  over  into  Washington. 
The  fish  wheel  shows  in  the  center,  on  the  Washington  side. 
This  is  a  famous  region  for  the  salmon  fisheries. 

(1)  Study  this  sceue,  to  find  in  it  something  which  perhaps  others 
of  your  class  may  not  see.  It  may  not  come  at  first  thought.  Some- 
times second  thoughts  are  best. 

(2)  Fish  Wheels.  —  Large  wheels  revolve  with  the  cuiTent, 
carrying  leather  nets,  used  i!i  the  capture  of  salmon.  The  buckets  of 
the  wheel  dip  up  the  fish  swimming  upstream  underneath  the  wheel. 
As  the  buckets  rise,  the  fish  slide  down  into  a  central  cylinder,  and 
thence  into  a  large  receptacle,  where  they  are  secured.  Refer  to 
the  cyclopedia,  or  to  the  public  library  for  fuller  details,  and  give 
an  exposition  of  the  fish  wheel.  Draw  diagram,  and  explain  care- 
fully. 

(3)  Locks.  —  Let  another  pupil,  following  your  explanation,  con- 
struct an  undershot  and  an  overshot  waterwheel,  explaining  which  is 
the  more  efficient. 


Oral  Exercises 


^49 


ORAL  EXERCISES  1 

Simple  Explanations.  —  Let  the  pupil  face  the  class  and,  without 
leaning  upon  a  desk  or  chair  for  support,  explain  logically  and  com- 
pletely, some  idea,  some  article,  or  some  process  concerning  which  he 
has  informed  himself.  If  the  subject  admits,  he  may  illustrate  by 
the  article  itself,  or  by  drawings  or  diagrams  upon  the  blackboard. 
The  list  given  herewith  is  intended  to  be  suggestive.  A  subject  that 
the  student  works  out  for  himself  or  herself  will  prove  of  deeper 
interest  than  a  subject  selected  by  some  one  else. 


How  to  set  up  a  tent. 

How  to  make  a  camp  bed. 

How  to  build  a  bird  house. 

How  asphalt  roads  are  made. 

Why  the  days  grow  short  in 
winter. 

The  principles  of  forest  pres- 
ervation. 

How  to  make  a  cuckoo  clock. 

A  visit  to  Niagara  Falls. 

How  to  measure  the  height  of 
a  skyscraper,  or  a  tall  tree. 

What  became  of  our  buffalo  ? 

How  to  make  a  bed. 

How  to  make  a  leather  card 
case. 

How  styles  change. 

Don't  kill  the  birds. 

What  women  have  done  as 
farmers. 

What  is  true  courage  ? 

How  a  girl  may  earn  her  living. 

How  an  alarm  clock  is  made. 

How  to  break  a  colt. 

How  to  run  an  automobile. 


The   construction  of    cement 

roads. 
Why  a  skillful  fisherman  uses 

a  variety  of  bait. 
The  conditions  necessary  for 

a  good  snapshot  picture. 
How    moving     pictures     are 

taken. 
A  trip  round  the  world. 
Why  the   Federal   laws  with 

regard    to    migratory   wild 

fowl  should  be  enforced. 
What    became    of    our    wild 

pigeons  ? 
Recipes  for  fudge. 
How  to  put  in  a  sleeve. 
How  a   sewing   machine   ties 

a  thread. 
A  plea  for  the  English  sparrow. 
A  bachelor  maid. 
The  story  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
The  raising  of  alfalfa. 
Why  women  are  for  peace. 
What  are   the  elements   that 

make  a  home? 


Suggested  by  The  Teaching  of  High  School  English,  State  of  New 


Jersey. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
EFFECTIVE  ARGUMENT 


(bme  now,  and  let  us  reason  together.  —  Isaiah. 


Argument  Defined.  —  An  argument  is  an  effort  to  induce 
belief  or  conviction.  To  do  this,  it  must  show  clearly 
what  is  to  be  proved.  In  this,  it  is  like  exposition.  Every 
argument  must  be  founded  on  a  clear  and  reasonable  expla- 
nation of  the  subject  under  discussion. 

Exposition  makes  a  thing  clear  by  taking  away  any 
misapprehensions  that  may  exist,  or  by  instructing  igno- 
rance. Argument  drives  home  the  truth  of  the  proposi- 
tion it  seeks  to  defend  by  meeting  and  disarming  the 
opposition  manifested  against  it.  Its  purpose  is  to  per- 
suade the  hearer  to,  or  to  dissuade  him  from,  some  course  of 
thought  or  action. 

The  truth  must  always  be  the  basis  of  good  argument. 
But  arrangement  is  the  strongest  factor  that  argument 
can  bring  to  bear  in  driving  home  the  truth.  The  best 
of  arguments,  poorly  arranged,  fail  to  produce  conviction. 

The  Brief.  —  In  order  to  arrange  your  arguments  to 
best  advantage,  you  should  make  an  outline  of  the  points 
on  which  you  intend  to  lay  stress.  In  the  three  other 
forms  of  speaking  or  writing,  —  narrative,  description, 
and  exposition,  —  it  is  often  more  effective  to  conceal 
your  plan  of  arrangement.  But  in  the  case  of  argument, 
the  more  definitely  you  can  impress  upon  your  auditors 

260 


Parts  of  the  Brief  251 

or  readers  the  orderly  arrangement  of  your  points,  the 
better.  An  outline  in  argument  is  called  a  brief,  A 
good  brief  is  the  first  essential  of  a  good  argument. 

As  the  brief  is  but  an  outline  under  another  name,  each 
point  should  be  made  in  a  complete  sentence,  this  topic 
sentence  being  the  substance  of  one  complete  paragraph. 

Parts  of  the  Brief.  —  There  should  be  three  parts  in  the 
brief,  corresponding  to  the  three  parts  of  the  finished 
argument :  (1)  the  introduction ;  (2)  the  proof ;  and 
(3)  the  conclusion. 

The  introduction  should  contain  enough  to  make  clear 
what  you  propose  to  prove,  and  not  one  word  more.  The 
shorter  it  is,  the  better.  It  should  set  forth  the  issues  in 
a  simple  and  straightforward  manner.  It  should  state 
only  admitted  facts,  and  points  that  are  not  controverted. 
Its  object  is  to  clear  the  way  for  the  argument  which  is  to 
follow.  The  introduction,  however,  should  contain  no 
argument.  Its  most  noticeable  characteristic  should  be 
simplicity  and  modesty. 

The  proof  or  body  of  the  argument^  should  attempt  a 
few  points,  rather  than  many.  In  high  school  work  it 
is  altogether  out  of  place  to  attempfto  pile  up  arguments. 
Two  or  three  good  points,  clearly  stated,  well  illustrated, 
and  presented  in  an  attractive  and  forceful  way,  will  be 
more  effective  than  a  heavier  effort. 

The  conclusion  should  be  stated  in  as  few  words  as  pos- 
sible. It  should  summarize  the  argument  in  clear-cut 
phrase.  No  new  points  should  be  advanced  in  the  con- 
clusion, its  aim  being  to  clinch  the  points  made  in  the 
proof. 

A  Brief 

Final  examinations  should  he  retained  in  (or  introduced  into) 
this  school. 


252  Effective  Argument 

Brief  for  the  Affirmative 
Introduction. 

I.  Final  examinations  are  written  tests  of  the  work  done  in 
each  study,  and  are  given  at  the  end  of  the 
term. 
II.  It  is  admitted  (a)  that  there  is  a  certain  strain  on  both 
mind  and  body,  especially  on  the  part  of  ner- 
vous pupils;  and  (6)  that  final  examinations 
do  not  determine  the  value  of  the  work  done 
with  absolute  certainty. 

III.  The  question  at  issue  is :  Are  final  examinations,  in 
spite  of  these  two  objections,  of  sufficient  value 
to  warrant  their  continuance  in  (or  introduction 
into)  this  school  ? 

Body  of  the  Brief. 

I.     Final  examinations  are  useful  to  the  pupil,  because 

A.  They  are  at  least  of  equal  value  with  the  marks  given 

for  daily  recitations ; 

1.  All  pupils  have  the  same  chance,  since  they  all 

answer  the  same  questions. 

2.  In  recitations,  the  pupil  has  to  think  quick  or 

fail,  while  in  examinations,  he  can  take  longer 
^  time. 

3.  They  give  the  pupils  one  more  chance.     Sickness 

or  other  unavoidable  causes  may  have  lowered 
the  standing  of  good  students,  and  examina- 
tions afford  the  means  of  remedying  this. 

B.  The    objection   that  final    examinations    encourage 

"cramming"  has  not  much  force. 
1.   If  by  the  term  cramming  is  meant  a  rapid  but 
thorough  review  of  the  work  of  the  term,  intel- 
ligently and  not  too  hastily  done,  this  is  not  an 
evil  but  a  benefit. 
o.   In  a  rapid  review  of  the  subject,  the  student 
finds  for  himself  where  he  is  weak,  and  has 


Parts  of  the  Brief  253 

time  for  strengthening  his  knowledge  of  the 
subject. 

b.  The  ability  to  cover  ground  rapidly  and  effec- 

tively is  well  worth  acquiring. 

c.  If  the  pupil  knows  the  examination  has  to  be 

met,  he  will  be  more  likely  to  study  with 
an  eye  to  permanent  knowledge  rather  than 
to  temporary  information. 

II.   Final  examinations  are  useful  to  the  teacher,  because 

A.  They  afford  the  best  possible  opportunity  for  find- 

ing how  well  the  students  of  his  class  under- 
stand their  work. 

B.  They  show  him  the  weak  points  in  his  own  teaching, 

if  such  exist. 

C.  They  give  him  an  additional  means  of  testing  the 

ability  or  preparation  of  his  pupils.  He  may 
have  overestimated  or  undervalued  the  daily 
preparation  of  some  of  his  pupils. 

III.     Final  examinations  have  stood  the  test  of  years,  and  are 
in  wide  use  all  over  the  country. 

Conclusion. 

I.     It  has  been  shown  that  final  examinations  are  of  service 
to  the  pupil,  because 

A.  They  are  an  equal  test  with  that  of  daily  records. 

B.  They  compel  the  pupil  to  review  carefully,  and  thus 

in  many  instances  to  strengthen  for  himself 
his  grasp  on  the  subject. 

C.  They  give  the  pupil  training  in  getting  at  and  using 

valuable  information  at  short  notice. 

II.     We  have  also  shown  that  final  examinations  are  of  service 
to  the  teacher,  because 

A.  They  give  him  an  excellent  test  of  what  his  pupils 

know. 

B.  They  reveal  his  own  weakness,  if  such  exists. 


^54 


Eflfective  Argument 


C.   They  act  as  a  corrective  in  Ms  judgment   of  the 
progress  of  his  pupils. 

III.  They  have  stood  the  test  of  years. 

IV.  It  is  therefore  fair  to  conclude  that  the  system  of  final 

examinations  should  be  continued  in  (or  intro- 
duced into)  this  high  school. 

Brief  in  Reverse  Order.  —  The  example  of  a  brief  just 
outlined  gives  the  main  conclusion  first,  and  brings  in  the 
arguments  therefor  afterwards.  It  may  frequently  hap- 
pen, however,  that  effective  argument  will  require  the 
reasons  to  be  given  first,  and  the  conclusion  stated  last. 
The  judgment  of  the  pupil  will  decide  which  plan  is  best. 


Roman 


;e. — Alexander  Wagner. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Roman  Chariot  Race. — Does  your  pulse  quicken  at  seeing 
this  race?  The  scene  is  worthy  your  best  effort  at  descrip- 
tion. The  Roman  circus  with  its  vast  amphitheater,  —  the 
people  on  the  one  side,  and  the  emperor  on  the  other,  —  the 
flying  chariots  risking  life  in  mad  endeavor. 

Think  out  some  story  whose  interest  centers  here,  and  tell  it. 

Ben  Hur's  Chariot  Race.  This  might  well  be  the  picture  of  Ben 
Hur's  famous  race.  Refer  to  Lew  Wallace's  Ben  Hur^  and  tell  the 
story  vividly. 


Two  Kinds  of  Reasoning  ^55 

Two  Kinds  of  Reasoning.  —  We  generally  use  one  or  the 

other  of  two  kinds  of  reasoning,  (a)  deductive;  or  (6)  in- 
ductive. 

Deductive  reasoning  tries  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  a 
specific  proposition  by  proving  that  the  general  proposition 
applies  to  it.  For  instance,  a  child  sees  a  wild  rose 
growing  by  the  wayside,  and  runs  to  gather  the  roses. 
The  mother  cries,  "  Look  out  for  the  thorns !  "  In  her 
mind  the  argument  ran  thus.  All  roses  have  thorns.  This 
is  a  rose.  Therefore  this  rose  has  thorns.  She  applied  what 
she  felt  to  be  a  general  truth  with  regard  to  all  roses,  to 
this  one  rose ;  and  it  was  pretty  safe  reasoning. 

Inductive  reasoning  establishes  the  probable  truth  of  a 
proposition  from  many  individual  cases.  It  assumes  that 
what  is  true  at  certain  times  of  individual  members  of  a 
class,  will  be  true  at  all  times,  under  the  same  or  similar 
circumstances,  of  the  whole  class. 

Here  is  a  simple  example  of  inductive  reasoning.  A  lad 
was  on  his  way  through  the  woods  to  a  country  school.  His 
path  lay  along  a  line  trout  stream,  in  one  pool  of  which  was 
known  to  lurk  a  famous  trout,  which  more  than  one  fisherman 
had  tried  in  vain  to  catch.  Beiug  a  boy,  he  must  have  one  look 
at  that  pool.  Approaching  cautiously,  he  nevertheless  made 
a  mis-step  which  sent  a  nestful  of  field  mice  a-scurrying.  One 
of  the  little  creatures,  panic-stricken,  leaped  down  the  steep 
bank,  fell  into  the  pool,  and  started  to  swim.  He  but  touched 
the  water  and  the  trout  had  him. 

All  day  long,  as  the  boy  sat  in  school,  he  had  something  to 
think  about.  If  Master  Trout  rose  to  one  field  mouse,  why  not 
to  another  ?  He^d  ti-y  him,  anyway.  He  was  early  at  the  pool 
next  morning.  No  trouble  to  catch  a  mouse.  Fasteniug  him 
to  his  line,  and  keeping  well  out  of  sight,  he  threw  him  into 
the  pool,  and  in  a  moment  had  the  struggle  of  his  life  in  bring- 
ing to  land  the  finest  trout  ever ! 


256  Effective  Argument 

The  boy  reasoned  from  what  was  true  of  the  trout  one 
time,  to  what  would  he  true  of  him  another  time.  And  he 
caught  his  fish. 

In  inductive  reasoning,  however,  guard  against  hasty 
generalization.  There  is  danger  of  your  jumping  to  a  con- 
clusion, when  there  are  more  points  against  it  than  there 
are  for  it,  if  you  take  time  to  look  for  them. 

Assertion  and  Proof.  — You  must  at  the  outset  distin- 
guish between  assertion  and  proof.  Assertion  is  merely 
the  expression  of  an  opinion,  while  proof  is  the  effect  or 
result  of  evidence. 

Evidence.  — Anything  that  is  .true,  and  that  applies  to 
the  case  in  hand,  and  that  helps  to  establish  the  truth  of 
the  point  under  discussion,  is  called  evidence.  Evidence 
includes : 

(1)  facts  that  have  come  within  your  own  experience ; 

(2)  facts  that  have  come  within  the  experience  of 
others,  and  to  which  they  are  willing  to  testify ; 

(3)  the  opinions  or  testimony  of  others,  where  such 
opinion  or  testimony  comes  from  those  who  are  consid- 
ered experts ; 

(4)  arguments  or  deductions  based  upon  your  own 
experience,  or  upon  the  testimony  of  other  and  credible 
witnesses,  or  upon  expert  testimony  ;  and 

(5)  other  propositions,  bearing  upon  the  case  , under 
discussion,  if  they  are  granted  or  proved. 

No  matter  how  strong  evidence  may  appear  to  you,  and 
to  those  who  agree  with  you,  your  opponents  will  endeavor 
to  impeach  it,  or  break  it  down. 

(1)  They  may  deny  the  existence  of  what  you  have 
alleged  as  facts ; 

(2)  they  may  try  to  discredit  the  reliability  of  your 
witnesses ; 

(3)  they  may  endeavor  to  laugh  at  the  opinions  you 


Circumstantial  Evidence  257 

count  so  much  upon,  and  may  even  produce  from  the 
same  authority  opinions  that  strengthen  their  side  ; 

(4)  they  may  take  your  alleged  facts  and  turn  them  to 
their  own  advantage,  and  thereby  cause  you  chagrin  and 
discomfiture;  and 

(5)  they  may  pile  up  on  their  side  of  the  question 
many  other  propositions,  just  as  strong  as  yours,  much 
to  your  disgust  and  to  the  amusement  of  everybody  else. 

Circumstantial  Evidence.  —  Evidence  which  depends  not 
so  much  upon  the  testimony  of  eye-witnesses  as  upon  the 
force  of  circumstances,  is  called  circumstantial  evidence. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  circumstantial  evidence  is  stronger 
than  direct  testimony.  The  force  of  a  combination  of 
many  circumstances  all  pointing  the  same  way  is  almost 
incalculable,  and  it  is  hard  to  break  down  circumstantial 
evidence.     The  following  is  an  illustration. 

Two  men  enter  a  swamp  together.  A  shot  is  heard.  One 
of  the  men  emerges  from  the  swamp.  The  body  of  the 
other  is  found,  the  bullet  which  killed  him  having  evidently 
been  shot  fro.m  behind.  The  bullet  is  found,  and  it  fits  the  re- 
volver of  the  other  man.  One  chamber  of  his  revolver  is 
empty.     He  is  convicted  on  circumstantial  evidence. 

Other  Forms  in  Argument.  —  Argument  seldom-,  if  ever, 
occurs  alone.  It  is  most  frequently  combined  with  exposi- 
tion, the  two  having  much  in  common.  But  it  is  found 
very  often  in  connection  or  combination  with  narrative  or 
description. 

Argument  of  the  highest  type  sometimes  consists  in  the 
skillful  use  of  one  or  all  of  the  three  other  forms  of  dis- 
course. A  fable  is  pure  narrative,  and  yet  it  often  fur- 
nishes the  strongest  argument  for  or  against  some  action 
or  attitude  on  the  part  of  humanity.  This  is  also  true  in 
case  of  many  parables^  whose  underlying  arguments  are 
unanswerable. 


^58 


EflFective  Argument 


EXERCISES  BASED   ON  PICTURES 


Nathan  Hale. 


A  Patriot.  —  Each  suc- 
ceeding generation  of 
Americans  will  hold 
Nathan  Hale  in  higher 
esteem.  The  burden  laid 
upon  him  was  foreign  to 
his  noble  nature,  but  duty 
called,  and  as  an  American 
soldier  there  was  but  one 
thing  to  do,  and  that  was 
to  obey.  He  said  that  he 
had  but  a  single  regret, 
and  that  was  that  he  had 
but  one  life  to  give  for 
his  country.  No  nobler 
sentence  is  recorded  in 
our  history. 

Nathan  Hale,  —  Learn 
and  recite  the  poem  of  this 
title,  by  Francis  Miles 
Finch.  The  first  two  lines 
are, 


To  drumbeat  and  heartbeat, 
A  soldier  marches  by. 

This  poem  is  beautifully  written,  and  full  of  genuine  patriotism. 

EXERCISES  IN  ARGUMENT 

(a)  Oral  Argument  —  Prepare  one  oral  argument  in  favor  of,  or 
one  oral  argument  against,  each  one  of  the  following  statements. 

1.  The  word  of  a  high  school  pupil  should  be  accepted  in 
all  questions  concerning  discipline  in  the  school. 

2.  This  high  school  building  should  be  open  to  any  and  all 
organizations  of  the  taxpayers,  where  the  good  of  the  com- 
munity is  in  any  way  involved. 


Exercises  in  Argument  259 

3.  To  know  how  to  cook  a  good,  substantial  meal  is  an 
essential  part  of  a  high  school  girl's  education. 

4.  Every  boy  should  be  taught  the  use  of  tools. 

5.  The  students  of  this  high  school  should  be  charged  with 
its  discipline. 

6.  The  parcel  post  system  should  be  more  widely  extended. 

7.  Taxpayers  who  send  no  children  to  the  public  schools 
should  be  exempted  from  the  payment  of  school  taxes. 

8.  This  city  should  own  and  operate  its  street  railway 
systems. 

9.  A  woman  should  receive  the  same  pay  as  a  man  for 
equal  work  performed. 

10.  The  U.  S.  Government  should  own  and  operate  all  the 
railway  systems  of  the  country. 

{b)  Defending  or  Attacking  a  Proposition.  —  The  question  at  issue, 
that  is,  the  proposition,  is  thus  stated.  Resolved:  that  a  property 
qualification  should  be  made  the  basis  of  the  voting  privilege. 

The  following  propositions  are  to  be  given  to  two  pupils,  one  on 
each  side,  for  oral  debate.  They  will  thus  defend  or  attack  the 
proposition. 

1.  Resolved  :  that  former  times  were  better  than  these. 

2.  Resolved  :  that  trades  unions  tend  to  better  the  condi- 
tions of  the  working  classes. 

3.  Resolved :  that  professional  beggars  should  be  dealt  with 
as  criminals. 

4.  Resolved  :  that  the  North  American  Indians  have  been 
unfairly  dealt  with. 

5.  Resolved :  that  there  should  be  an  educational  qualifi- 
cation for  the  admission  of  immigrants  to  this  country. 

(c)  Salesmanship.  —  Put  yourself  in  the  place  of  a  salesman  or 
clerk,  and  answer  the  following  objections  made  by  customers. 

1.  I  don't  think  I  have  any  use  for  a  vacuum  cleaner. 

2.  I  have  no  time  to  read  Tlie  Literary  Digest. 

3.  I  am  not  a  farmer.  Why  should  I  read  The  Country 
Gentleman  f 


260  Effective  Argument 

4.  I  do  not  believe  in  "book  farming."  Wby  should  I 
read  The  Country  Gentleman? 

5.  Why  should  I  buy  a  new  automobile?  I  can  buy  a 
second-hand  machine  for  much  less  money. 

(c?)  Answering  Objections.  —  Give  something  like  a  reasonable 
answer  to  each  of  the  following  objections. 

1.  What  is  the  use  of  a  girl's  receiving  an  education  ?  She 
expects  to  marry  in  a  few  years.  What  good  will  it  do  her 
then? 

2.  If  the  man  I  vote  for  is  defeated,  I  lose  my  vote. 

3.  Why  should  we  send  missionaries  to  foreign  countries 
when  there  are  so  many  heathen  at  home  ? 

(e)  Preparing  a  Brief.  —  Let  each  member  of  the  class  select  a 
topic  for  a  proposition,  and  submit  a  carefully  prepared  brief  on  it. 

(/)  Making  a  Brief  for  Both  Sides.  —  Take  any  one  of  the 
topics  given  above,  and  let  each  student  prepare  both  the  aflBrmative 
and  negative  briefs. 

(^g)  Free  for  All  Comers.  —  Select  one  student  to  act  as  president  and 
two  students  on  each  side,  one  to  open  and  one  to  close  the  discussion. 
Decide  upon  a  question  for  discussion,  and  discuss  it  as  follows. 

Opening  speech,  affirmative. 

Opening  speech,  negative. 

General  discussion,  in  which  the  entire  class  may  participate, 
each  speaker  being  allowed  two  minutes,  and  no  speaker 
being  allowed  the  floor  the  second  time. 

Closing  speech,  negative. 

Closing  speech  affirmative. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  discussion,  the  president  may  put  the 
question  to  the  entire  class,  a  majority  vote  deciding.  In  case  of  a 
tie  vote,  the  president  may  cast  the  deciding  vote  upon  the  question. 

(Ji)  Assertion  and  Proof.  —  Make  an  assertion  concerning  some 
debatable  question.  Do  your  best  to  prove  this  assertion  by  the  in- 
troduction of  two  or  three  points  in  favor  of  it. 

(0  Dramatization.  —  Let  several  students  enact  a  scene  in  sales- 
manship, the  salesmen  presenting  arguments  for  the  sale  of  certain 
goods  and  the  customers  presenting  counter  arguments. 


Exercises  in  Argument  261 

(y)  Reshaping  an  Argument.  —  Refer  to  The  Autocrat  of  the  Break- 
fast Table,  IT,  page  353,  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  This  is  a  fine 
piece  of  argument  as  to  the  use  of  slang.  You  will  have  to  translate 
it  out  of  Holmes'  peculiar  but  very  effective  style  into  your  own  way 
of  saying  things.  Get  entirely  away  from  him  in  style,  but  do  not 
omit  any  essential  argument.  Show  that  the  use  of  slang  is  open  to 
many  objections.  Show  also,  if  you  can,  in  what  way  it  is  proper  to 
use  slang. 

(Jc)  Round  Table  Discussion.^  —  Sometimes  instead  of  assigning 
the  discussion  of  an  important  topic  to  one  or  two  speakers,  resort  is 
had  to  what  is  called  round  table  discussion.  The  chairman  usually 
announces  the  subject  in  a  brief  statement,  and  then  calls  upon  sev- 
eral speakers,  each  of  whom  discusses  some  phase  of  the  subject,  hav- 
ing had  ample  time  for  preparation. 

The  closing  address  is  by  some  speaker  chosen  for  his  ability.  In 
a  brief,  pointed  talk,  he  touches  here  and  there  upon  suggestions 
made  by  the  respective  speakers,  and  then  focuses  the  thought  in  a 
carefully  prepared  paper.  The  time  allowed  is  from  three  to  five 
minutes  for  the  members  taking  part  in  the  general  discussion,  and 
from  eight  to  ten  minutes  for  the  closing  address. 

The  general  discussion  is  informal,  the  speakers  giving  their 
views  modestly,  and  with  due  regard  for  the  opinions  of  others. 
The  participants  are  in  no  sense  opponents.  Even  speakers 
who  under  other  conditions  are  noted  for  the  fire  and  vigor 
with  which  they  handle  debate,  are  expected  to  deal  moder- 
ately and  dispassionately  with  the  subject  in  hand. 

There  are  two  distinctive  features  of  a  round  table  discus- 
sion :  (1)  its  xi^iffect  fairness  towards  all  who  have  a  part  in  it ; 
and  (2)  the  ability  to  stick  to  the  subject,  on  the  part  of  all  the 


1  Reference  is  made  to  this  form  of  discussion  in  the  following  require- 
ment of  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  English,  N.  E.  A.  Commission  on 
Reorganization  of  High  Schools,  "Expression  in  speech  includes  ability 
to  join  in  an  informal  discussion,  contributing  one's  share  of  information 
or  opinion,  without  wandering  from  the  point  and  without  discourtesy  to 
others."  The  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  means 
about  the  same  thing  where  it  says,  "  The  aim  should  be,  for  others,  the 
ability  to  converse  easily  and  fluently  on  topics  ot  the  day  and  to  sustain 
before  a  class  or  other  small  group  a  line  of  thought  to  its  completion." 


262  Effective  Argument 

members  of  the  round   table.     The  chairman  will  hold  each 
speaker  strictly  to  the  question  under  discussion. 

(I)  Suggested  Exercise  for  Round  Table  Discussion.  —  Suppose  that 
arrangements  are  about  to  be  completed  for  the  erection  and  equip- 
ment of  a  new  high  school  building.  Some  one  in  authority  has  in- 
timated that  the  Board  of  Education,  or  the  Building  Committee  is 
willing  to  hear  from  the  Athletic  Association  of  the  high  school  as  to 
the  gymnasium  and  basket  ball  floor. 

The  executive  committee  arranges  a  meeting,  names  the  chairman 
and  secretary,  and  assigns  speakers  and  topics  for  each.  The  chair- 
man announces  the  purpose  of  the  discussion.  One  member  discusses 
the  dimensions  of  the  gymnasium,  length,  width,  and  height.  An- 
other, the  material  of  which  the  inner  walls  should  be  constructed. 
A  third  speaker,  suggestions  as  to  heating,  and  perhaps  the  shower 
baths.  A  fourth  speaker  deals  with  the  equipment,  touching  upon 
the  gymnasium,  basket  ball  floor,  and  the  swimming  pool.  The 
question  is  then  thrown  open  for  general  discussion,  free  for  all. 

The  chairman  then  suggests  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to 
visit  the  Board,  submit  a  brief  statement  of  what  is  wanted,  and  after 
the  appointment  of  this  committee,  calls  upon  the  closing  speaker  to 
sum  up,  for  the  benefit  of  this  committee,  the  findings  of  the  round  table. 

(m)  Other  Topics.  —  Any  question  of  interest  to  the  school  may  be 
dealt  with  in  round  table  discussion.  How  to  raise  money  for  the 
athletic  fund,  where  to  look  for  additional  funds  for  graduating  time, 
how  to  add  to  the  library,  how  to  enlarge  the  equipment  of  the 
English  class,  the  advisability  of  an  excursion  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  money  for  any  purpose,  some  proposed  entertainment,  and  in 
fact  anything  coming  within  the  interests  of  the  English  class,  or  of 
the  high  school,  may  well  be  handled  in  a  round  table  discussion. 

(n)  Vocational  Round  Table  Inquiry.  —  Let  a  group  of  three  or 
more,  composed  of  students  who  strongly  incline  to  literary  work, 
hold  a  round  table  discussion  on  how  to  prepare  manuscript  for 
publication.  The  chairman  need  not  necessarily  have  such  ambi- 
tion, his  aim  being  first  of  all  to  hold  the  speakers  to  the  question 
at  issue. 

Let  a  group  of  three  or  more  handle  the  inquiry  how  to  prepare 
for  the  study  of  music  as  a  life  work,  this  preparation  to  begin  now  in 
the  high  school.  Let  a  group  of  students  discuss  how  to  go  to  work 
in  preparation  for  advertising  writing. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


263 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 


Mischief    Afoot  ! 
What  are  they  plotting  ? 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Mischief  Afoot.  —  Some  mischief  surely  is  plotting,  but  with  no 
malice  iu  it.  What  have  they  been  doing,  or  what  are  they  planning 
to  do  ?    It  will  be  a  story  not  hard  to  tell,  if  you  can  get  at  it. 

(1)  Boyish  Adventure.  —  Have  they  found  a  melon  patch,  or 
a  pawpaw  thicket,  or  are  pears  ripe  in  the  big  orchard  ?  Or 
are  they  on  their  way  to  the  swimming  hole,  to  tie  knots  in 
swimmers'  clothes  ?  Perhaps  they  plan  tc'  catch  the  old  gray 
mare  and  have  a  jolly  but  forbidden  ride  across  the  meadow. 
Think  out  some  story  of  boyish  pranks,  and  tell  it. 

(2)  Playing  Robinson  Crusoe.  —  Sketch  a  story  where  a  num- 
ber of  boys  maroon  a  schoolmate  on  an  island.  Tell  the  story 
of  the  boy  who  was  left  behind,  and  make  it  interesting. 

(3)  Getting  Even.  —  Tell  the  story  of  how  this  lad  got  even 


264  Effective  Argument 

with  the  boys  who  marooned  him.     Avoid  any  bitterness  on 
his  part.     Let  it  end  pleasantly. 

(4)  A  OirVs  Adventure.  —  Some  girls  plan  an  automobile 
outing  in  a  grove  ten  miles  away.  Just  for  fun,  they  leave 
one  of  the  girls  originally  invited,  taking  in  her  place  a  new 
girl.  To  their  amazement,  on'  their  arrival  at  the  grove,  the 
girl  they  had  left  behind  comes  smilingly  to  meet  them,  with 
no  word  of  explanation.  Think  out  a  reasonable  and  interest- 
ing solution,  and  tell  the  story. 

(5)  Real  Mischief  Afoot.  —  Tell  the  story  of  Queen  Esther 
as  told  in  the  book  of  Esther.  Show  how  Haman  plotted 
against  the  young  queen,  and  how  the  plot  was  frustrated. 

(6)  Ancient  Mischief  Makers.  Tell  how  Joseph's  brethren 
planned  to  do  him  harm.  If  you  choose,  improvise  a  class 
play  by  which  to  tell  this  story.    Consult  Genesis^  xxxvii,  1^34. 


CHAPTER   XX 
EFFECTIVE  DEBATE 


Conference  maketh  a  ready  man,— 'Racots. 


Debating  Defined.  —  Debate  is  oral  argument  on  some 
definite  question,  and  is  conducted  under  agreed  rules 
between  opposing  sides. 

Nothing  in  high  school  work  is  more  interesting  or  more 
valuable  than  a  good  debate.  It  should  begin  between 
opposing  teams  of  the  same  school,  or  within  the  same 
literary  society.  Interscholastic  debate,  between  high 
schools  of  the  same  rank  or  standing,  is  highly  useful 
and  always  interesting. 

The  Proposition.  —  The  question  proposed  for  discus- 
sion is  called  the  proposition.  It  should  be  clearly  set 
forth  as  a  single  affirmative  statement,  in  terms  that  can- 
not possibly  be  misunderstood.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
discussion  should  be  confined  to  one  definite  phase  of  the 
subject,  called  the  point  at  issue. 

Order  in  Debating.  —  Certain  prescribed  forms  are  used 
in  debate.  The  presiding  officer  is  called  "  Mr.  Chair- 
man." In  case  a  lady  is  chosen  as  presiding  officer,  it  is 
proper  to  address  her  as  "Madam  Chairman."  It  is  not 
allowable  to  refer  to  the  speakers  on  either  side  by  name. 
It  is  either  "  my  opponent,"  or  "  my  colleague,"  or  "  the 
first  speaker  on  the  negative  side,"  or  "the  concluding 
speaker  on   the  affirmative  side."     The   judges  are   ad- 


266  EfiFective  Debate 

dressed  as  "  Honorable  Judges."  The  introductory  address 
may  be  thus  given,  "  Mr.  Chairman,  Honorable  Judges, 
Ladies  and  Gentlemen :  " 

The  following  is  the  usual  order  of  speakers. 

1.  First  speaker  on  the  affirmative  side. 

2.  First  speaker  on  the  negative  side. 

3.  Second  speaker  on  the  affirmative  side. 

4.  Second  speaker  on  the  negative  side. 

5.  Third  speaker  on  the  affirmative  side. 

6.  Third  speaker  on  the  negative  side. 
Slight  intermission. 

During  the  two  or  three  minutes  thus  afforded,  each 
team  holds  a  hurried  consultation  to  see  if  any  important 
part  has  been  neglected,  and  what  points  should  be  made 
by  their  leader  in  his  closing  speech.  The  chairman  calls 
the  meeting  to  order,  allowing  not  more  than  three  minutes 
as  the  limit  of  this  conference. 

7.  Closing  speaker  on  the  negative  side. 

8.  Closing  speaker  on  the  affirmative  side. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  debate,  the  judges  retire  and 
agree  by  ballot  as  to  the  decision.  If  the  decision  is  to 
be  by  "  points,"  as  it  is  called,  these  points  should  have 
been  definitely  agreed  upon  beforehand,  and  announced 
both  to  contestants,  and  to  the  audience.  The  decision 
should  be  announced  by  the  chairman  of  the  judges.  As 
a  matter  of  common  courtesy,  this  decision  should  be 
considered  final. 

A  slight  change  in  this  order  is  usually  made  where 
each  contestant  speaks  but  once.  In  such  case,  the  clos- 
ing order  is  as  follows  : 

6.   The  third  speaker  on  the  negative  side. 
6.   The  third  speaker  on  the  affirmative  side. 


Preparation  for  Debate  267 

Customs  in  Debate.  —  It  is  not  customary  for  any  one 
to  have  anything  to  say  to  the  debaters  after  the  opening 
of  the  debate.  No  one  outside  the  team  should  be  con- 
sulted during  the  slight  intermission,  where  the  teams 
confer  with  their  captain  as  to  the  final  speech. 

Anything  in  the  nature  of  complaint  or  criticism  of  the 
manner  of  conducting  the  debate  is  manifestly  in  poor 
taste.  The  chairman  and  the  judges  are  supposed  to 
know  their  duty  and  do  it.  The  chairman  has  it  in  his 
power  to  call  attention  to  any  breach  of  decorum  on  the 
part  of  any  one. 

Preparation  for  Debate.  —  Both  sides  should  understand 
the  point  at  issue,  and  be  prepared  to  defend  or  attack 
the  proposition  in  dispute.  It  should  be  so  stated  that 
they  may,  to  borrow  a  railroad  phrase,  meet  "head-on." 
If  the  two  sides  are  not  discussing  the  same  point,  their 
time  is  worse  than  wasted.  Often  one  team  chooses  the 
proposition,  while  the  other  selects  the  side  it  wishes  to 
defend.     This  is  fair  to  both. 

Suppose  a  debate  arranged  between  two  teams.  The 
point  at  issue  has  been  stated  and  accepted,  and  the  oppos- 
ing sides  know  that  they  have  to  work  hard  to  win.  Each 
team  is  supposed  to  include  three  students,  boys  or  girls, 
chosen  for  their  ability. 

There  should  be  a  competent  coach  for  each  side.  This 
may  be  the  instructor  in  English,  or  the  captain  of  the 
team,  or  if  it  can  be  so  arranged,  some  experienced  debater 
who  can  and  will  take  hold  and  "  whip  things  into  shape." 
Team  work  in  debates  is  of  great  importance,  and  here  is 
where  the  coach's  work  will  show.  When  the  time  comes, 
let  him  require  a  careful  brief  from  each. 

The  student  now  has  three  things  to  do. 

(1)  He  is  to  read^  as  probably  he  has  never  read  before. 

(2)  He  18  to  confer  with  his  fellow  debaters,  and  to  talk 


268  EflFective  Debate 

with  anyone  who  is  willing  to  help  him,  trying  to  get. 
points  for  his  side. 

(3)  He  is  to  do  some  real  thinking,  first  for  himself,  and 
then  for  his  team. 

Use  of  the  Library.  —  He  must  draw  upon  the  library. 
In  addition  to  what  he  can  find  for  himself,  he  should  go 
to  the  librarian  or  attendant,  giving  a  typewritten  copy 
of  the  question,  in  order  that  the  available  books  may  be 
placed  upon  the  "  open  shelf  "  to  remain  there  while  the 
debate  is  preparing. 

In  reading  for  points,  it  is  well  to  make  a  note  of  every- 
thing that  looks  available,  with  an  exact  reference  to 
book,  volume,  and  page ;  yet  practiced  debaters  soon  come 
to  know  that  a  few  really  telling  points  outweigh  a  multi- 
tude of  indiscriminate  suggestions.  The  student  should 
early  cultivate  a  judgment  that  will  select  what  is  vital 
and  reject  anything  that  is  not  really  useful. 

Dividing  the  Work.  —  Hold  an  early  meeting  of  the 
debaters  on  your  side.  If  you  have  a  coach,  let  him  act 
as  chairman.  Your  instructor  in  English  should  be  in- 
vited to  be  present  as  confidential  adviser,  as  should  also 
some  active  member  of  your  literary  society.  Your  coach, 
or  your  captain,  or  both,  will  decide,  as  to  the  order  of 
speakers.  In  deciding  on  this  important  matter,  it  would 
be  well  to  ask  and  answer  the  following  questions : 

1.  Of  the  three  speakers  on  your  side,  who  can  best  arouse 
the  interest  of  the  audience,  and  especially  of  the  judges 
who  are  to  render  the  decision? 

2.  Who  is  the  wittiest  speaker  ?  Which  speaker,  after  the 
interest  is  once  aroused,  can  best  hold  it  ? 

3.  Who  can  best  drive  conviction  home  to  the  hearts  and 
minds  of  the  audience,  and  of  the  judges  ? 

Work  of  Each  Speaker.  — Each  of  your  three  speakers  has 
au  important  function  in  the  debate.     The  first  speaker 


Work  of  Each  Speaker  269 

must  so  present  his  side  as  to  win  attention  and  interest. 
He  should  have  as  his  chief  point  the  most  effective  item 
on  his  side,  and  he  should  study  to  state  it  clearly, 
argue  it  briefly,  and  illustrate  it  cleverly.  He  should 
appeal  both  to  the  reason  and  to  the  feelings.  He  should 
have  one  or  two  arguments  in  addition,  but  they 
should  be  made  subordinate  to  the  real  point  that  he 
makes. 

After  catching  the  general  interest,  he  should  address 
himself  to  the  judges,  who  hold  the  fate  of  the  debate  in 
their  hands.  When  he  sits  down,  if  he  has  done  what  he 
ought  to  do,  he  will  have  made  a  hit.  His  address  will 
have  made  itself  felt. 

Debate  usually  drags  during  the  time  occupied  by  the 
second  speaker.  To  provide  against  this  difficulty  you 
must  put  your  wittiest  and  most  entertaining  speaker 
second.  His  part  is  to  maintain  an  interest  already 
aroused.  He  should  have  one  unusually  striking  point 
to  bring  out,  giving  it  a  vivid  illustration  to  fix  it  in  the 
minds  of  both  judge  and  auditor. 

If  he  can  deal  a  good  hard  blow  to  the  best  point  made 
by  the  opposition,  doing  it  offhand,  and  in  such  a  way  as 
to  put  his  audience  in  great  good  humor,  it  will  help 
amazingly.  Let  this  speaker  speak  well  within  his  time. 
If  he  has  eight  minutes,  let  him  use  seven.  He  will  earn 
the  gratitude  of  all  by  so  doing.  He  must  not  touch  the 
points  left  for  the  third  speaker. 

In  this  connection,  let  it  be  understood  that  no  student 
can  speak  to  advantage  and  use  more  than  one  hundred 
words  a  minute.  That  is  to  say,  a  speaker  who  is  allowed 
six  minutes  should  not  attempt  to  use  more  than  six  hun- 
dred words,  by  actual  count. 

The  function  of  the  third  speaker  is  to  drive  conviction 
home.     His  work  is  threefold. 


270  EflFective  Debate 

1.  He  should  make  only  two  or  three  points,  prefer- 
ably two.  He  must  lay  special  stress  on  the  one  selected 
beforehand  as  the  strongest  and  most  vital  argument 
advanced  by  his  side.  Let  his  presentation  be  brief, 
direct,  and  forcible. 

2.  He  must  next  meet  and  answer  some  of  the  most 
important  arguments  advanced  by  the  other  side.  If  any 
of  these  seems  too  strong  for  him,  let  him  ignore  it  alto- 
gether, or  deal  with  it  in  a  few  words,  and  then  proceed 
with  his  discussion.  One  of  the  rules  of  emphasis  is, 
that  you  devote  but  few  words  to  unimportant  topics. 
If  this  is  done  naturally,  the  very  manner  of  dealing  with 
it  will  convey  an  impression  to  the  audience  that  some- 
how the  item  is  hot  so  important  as  at  first  glance  it 
seemed  to  be. 

Ignoring  a  point,  however,  while  it  may  seem  expedient, 
is  not  the  best  way  of  going  at  things.  The  right  way  is 
to  recognize  the  difficulty,  and  endeavor  to  overcome  it 
by  just  that  much  better  preparation.  To  win  against 
odds  is  well  worth  working  for. 

3.  This  third  speaker  has  now  to  gather  up  the  best 
points  made  on  his  side,  perhaps  one  made  by  each  speaker, 
including  himself,  and  drive  them  home  to  the  hearts  and 
minds  of  the  judges.  This  last  effort,  you  will  note,  is  to 
be  aimed  distinctly  at  the  judges. 

Driving  it  Home.  —  How  a  high  school  boy  may  drive  a 
statement  home  is  thus  illustrated  by  Everybody's  Maga- 
zine. The  lad  was  trying  to  show  the  importance  of  the 
military  training  introduced  by  a  young  army  officer  into 
the  high  schools  of  the  State  of  Wyoming,  and  he  put  it 
this  way:  "He  put  backbone  into  us  where  before  we 
had  only  wishbone  and  jawbone."  A  sentence  like  that, 
uttered  at  the  end  of  a  closely  contested  debate,  might 
almost  win  the  debate. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


271 


The  Thin  Red  Line — Gibb. 
Gordon  (Scotch)  Highlanders  at  Balaklava. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  Thin  Red  Line.  —  At  the  battle  of  Balaklava,  in  the 
Crimean  War,  in  1854,  the  93d  Scotch  Highlanders  stood  in 
line,  two  deep,  like  a  "  Gaelic  rock,"  against  the  Kussian 
cavalry.  William  Howard  Russell,  the  first  great  war  corre- 
spondent, writing  to  the  London  Times,  referring  to  this 
scene,  spoke  of  them  as  a  thin  red  streak  topped  with  a  line  of 
steel.  Kipling  recalls  this  phrase,  when  he  speaks  of  a  "  thin 
red  line  of  heroes." 

Describe  the  picture. 

"  TommieJ'  Let  Kipling's  poem  of  this  title  be  read  in 
class.  You  will  find  a  reference  to  "  the  thin  red  line  of 
'eroes,"  in  this  poem. 

Preliminary  Practice. — After  all  this  work  has  been 
prepared  by  each  individual  speaker,  there  should  be  care- 
ful and  frequent  practice  in  some  large  room,  with  several 
auditors,  including  the  coach. 

Above  all,  let  the  coach  see  to  it  that  his  speakers  can 
be  heard.  Let  them  speak  clearly  and  distinctly.  He 
may  have  to  hammer  away  at  them  to  accomplish  this,  but 
let  him  do  it.     If  necessary,  let  the  coach  take  the  mem- 


272  Effective  Debate 

bers  of  his  side  separately  in  some  large  room  and  work 
with  them  until  they  can  be  heard  to  the  farthest  corner 
of  the  hall. 

Individuality  in  Debate.  —  The  foregoing  observations 
suggest  a  few  principles  and  a  few  rules  which  are  at 
the  bottom  of  success  in  debate,  but  in  no  department  of 
speech  or  writing  is  there  such  room  for  individuality  as 
in  debate,  or  in  argument  of  any  kind.  The  principles 
once  mastered,  the  speaker  is  a  law  unto  himself  when  it 
comes  to  the  manner  of  presentation. 

So  far  these  instructions  have  aimed  to  show  the  de- 
baters how  to  win.  It  is  also  important  to  know  how  to 
lose.  After  the  judges  have  announced  their  decision,  the 
students  on  the  losing  side  should  be  among  the  first  to 
congratulate  the  winners  heartily  and  unreservedly.  One 
of  the  unfailing  characteristics  of  a  gentleman  is  ability 
to  lose  gracefully. 

Rules  for  Speaking.  —  William  E.  Gladstone  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  great  masters  of  parliamentary  debate, 
as  he  was  the  greatest  orator  of  his  time.  None  knew 
better  how  to  hold  an  audience,  and  a  study  of  the  few 
simple  rules  he  gave  as  in  his  judgment  the  best  to  be 
observed  in  beginning  to  speak  in  public,  may  well  find  a 
place  here. 

1.  Make  your  language  plain,  always  preferring  the  sim- 
pler word. 

2.  Use  short  sentences  rather  than  long  ones. 

3.  Be  careful  to  speak  distinctly. 

4.  Test  your  arguments  beforehand,  not  waiting  for  critics 
or  opponents. 

5.  Seek  a  thorough  familiarity  with  your  subject,  and  rely 
upon  this  to  prompt  the  proper  words. 

6.  Remember  that  in  order  to  sway  an  audience,  you  must 
watch  it.    Do  not  talk  at  your  audience,  but  to  it. 


Suggestions  for  Debaters  273 

Suggestions  for  Debaters.  —  The  following  hints  will  be 
found  helpful  both  before  and  during  a  debate. 

1.  Determine  the  exact  meaning  of  the  question  as  stated. 
State  clearly  just  what  you  intend  to  prove.  Ignore  all  side 
issues.  ^ 

2.  Keep  your  audience  in  mind  in  selecting  the  arguments 
or  illustrations  you  think  of  employing.  An  argument  or 
illustration  that  would  strongly  influence  one  audience  might 
be  lost  on  another. 

3.  In  preparing  your  brief,  think  not  only  of  points  on 
your  side,  but  of  points  your  opponents  may  use. 

4.  Eemember  that  team  work  counts  in  debate  as  much  as 
it  does  in  basket  ball. 

5.  Avoid  statements  that  your  opponents  may  turn  into 
ridicule.  Laughter  is  not  argument,  but  laughter  turned 
against  you  does  more  harm  than  good  arguments  could  do. 

6.  Conclude  with  a  short  and  simple  summary  of  what  you 
have  been  trying  to  prove. 

7.  Be  fair  and  courteous.  Victory  is  not  everything.  A 
victory  gained  at  the  expense  of  the  lowering  of  your  self- 
respect  is  too  dearly  bought. 

Rebuttal.  —  Fully  as  important  as  the  making  of  your 
own  points  is  the  refuting  of  those  of  your  opponents. 
This  is  called  rebuttal.  There  are  four  good  ways  to 
refute  the  arguments  of  your  opponents. 

1.  If  they  are  based  upon  authority,  and  you  can 
quote  better  authority  in  refutation,  your  rebuttal  will 
be  strong. 

2.  If  you  cannot  produce  better  authority  for  your  side, 
the  thing  to  do  is  to  belittle  the  importance  of  their  as- 
sertions, restating  them  so  as  to  show  inconsistencies,  if 
possible. 

3.  A  third  method  is  to  make  some  humorous  allusion 
to  their  statements,  poking  mild  fun  at  what  you  cannot 
directly  refute. 


274  Effective  Debate 

4.  Akin  to  this  method  is  the  fourth  way,  —  the  use 
of  mild  sarcasm.  Of  course,  the  use  of  humor  and  sar- 
casm may  be  made  effective  in  all  four  of  the  above  named 
methods  of  rebuttal. 

Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis  in  Debate.  —  While 
these  three  characteristics  of  good  speaking  and  writing 
are  everywhere  necessary,  yet  in  argument  and  debate 
they  are  absolutely  essential.  In  preparing  your  brief, 
and  in  writing  your  argument  from  this  brief,  you  must 
be  ever  on  your  guard: 

1.  First  as  to  unity.  You  must  eliminate  everything 
that  in  any  way  hinders  the  main  thought  of  your  argu- 
ment. You  must  cut  out  every  word,  every  phrase,  every 
sentence  that  is  in  the  way. 

2.  Then  as  to  coherence.  The  impoi'tant  question  now 
is,  what  order  of  arguments  will  best  present  your  case, 
or  advance  the  proposition  you  seek  to  defend  ? 

3.  Finally,  as  to  emphasis.  This  will  have  much  to 
do  with  bringing  the  decision.  Proper  stress,  or  the 
skillful  marshaling  of  your  points,  will  insure  emphasis. 

Stating  the  Proposition.  —  The  proposition  is  usually 
stated  as  a  brief  affirmative  sentence  preceded  by  the 
words,  Resolved  that.  In  the  exercises  below,  the  sug- 
gested topics  may  be  arranged  as  propositions. 

EXERCISES  IN  STATING  THE  PROPOSITION 

1.  Whether  or  not  it  is  wise  to  have  a  "  Sane  Fourth  of  July." 

2.  Shall  we  have  a  class  picnic  ? 

3.  We  ought  to  raise  a  fund  for  current  expenses  for  our 
class. 

4.  Let  us  arrange  for  a  class  excursion. 

5.  Why  not  prorate  our  expenses,  say  twenty-five  cents 
each  ? 

6.  I  do  not  think  that  the  Indian  has  been  fairly  treated. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


275 


Church  of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Church  of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua.  —  Padua  is  one  of  the 
ancient  cities  of  Europe,  claiming  its  origin  in  the  time  of 
Troy.     This  church,  dedicated  to  Padua's  patron  saint,  dates 


276  EflFective  Debate 

from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  It  was  restored 
five  hundred  years  later.  The  style  is  unusual.  It  has  siz 
domes,  fashioned  after  the  Byzantine  St.  Mark's  of  Venice, 
with  Gothic  features  added.  The  picture  well  represents  its 
beauty. 

Look  up  a  description  of  the  church  in  the  encyclopedia,  and  give 
it  in  two  hundred  words.  Or  write  a  description  from  the  picture  in 
one  hundred  words. 

Study  in  Architecture.  —  Arrange  an  oral  discussion  on  the 
several  distinct  types  and  styles  of  architecture.  You  may 
find  material  in  the  school,  public,  or  art  libraries  of  your 
city ;  or  you  may  have  some  excellent  pictures  on  the  walls  of 
your  high  school ;  or  you  may  find  some  excellent  post-card 
reproductions  of  architecture.  If  your  school  possesses  a  re- 
flectoscope,  it  may  be  used  to  advantage  here.  Look  through 
the  catalogue  of  the  lantern  slides  that  you  have,  for  fine  illus- 
trations of  churches,  cathedrals,  and  towers. 

EXERCISES  IN  DEBATE 

(a)  Prepare  a  brief  to  be  used  in  a  debate  upon  one  of  the  follow- 
ing questions.  Maintain  either  the  affirmative  or  the  negative.  It 
may  be  well  to  have  one  or  two  of  the  briefs  thus  prepared  written 
out  on  the  blackboard,  and  subjected  to  careful  criticism  by  the  class. 

1.  All  high  school  subjects  should  be  elective. 

2.  English  in  the  high  school  should  not  be  elective. 

3.  We  need  a  larger  standing  army. 

4.  In  order  to  be  prepared  to  maintain  a  lasting  peace,  the 
United  States  should  equip  a  navy  equal  to  the  largest  navy 
of  the  world. 

6.  The  girls'  basket  ball  team  should  be  allowed  to  play 
match  games  with  schools  in  neighboring  towns. 

6.  Athletics  promote  the  best  interests  of  a  high  school. 

7.  The  electoral  college  should  be  abolished,  and  the  presi. 
dent  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 

(6)  Try  one  of  the  debates  below.     Prepare  a  brief  in  each  case. 


Exercises  in  Debate  277 

1.  Select,  or  let  the  class  suggest  the  selection  of  three 
members  on  each  side  of  a  discussion  of  the  question, 

Resolved,  that  vivisection  in  the  hands  of  trained  surgeons 
and  their  pupils  is  to  be  commended  as  a  means  of  scientific 
knowledge,  if  all  possible  precautions  are  taken  to  avoid  need- 
less pain. 

2.  Let  one  pupil  be  named  on  each  side,  to  sum  up  a  round 
table  discussion  or  colloquy  on  the  topic. 

Resolved,  that  the  advantages  resulting  from  the  enforce- 
ment of  compulsory  vaccination  outweigh  any  evil  effects 
arising  from  this  enforcement. 

(c)  Take  either  of  the  following : 

1.  Let  a  list  of  ten  names  be  selected  by  a  committee  of 
three  students  before  the  topic  is  announced.  Then  choose  a 
topic  or  theme  of  interest,  and  call  on  each  of  the  ten  to  give 
his  views  on  the  question  thus  selected,  in  a  two-minute  talk. 
The  committee  making  the  selection  will  bring  in  a  verdict 
from  the  impression  made  on  their  minds  by  the  discussion, 
pro  and  con. 

2.  Let  a  committee  of  three  be  selected  to  choose  three 
debaters  on  each  side  of  the  question  named  below.  The 
members  of  the  committee  are  to  act  as  judges  of  the  question 
thus  debated. 

Resolved^  that  greater  opportunity  for  advancement  is 
afforded  the  youth  of  America  now  than  in  the  past. 

(d)  Let  the  questions  given  below  be  debated  by  one  student  on 
each  side.  Each  is  to  speak  for  five  minutes,  using  five  hundred 
words;  that  is,  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  words  a  minute.  Each  is 
to  have  one  minute  for  closing. 

1.  Is  manual  training  to  be  considered  as  a  substitute  for 
athletics  ? 

2.  Resolved,  that  labor  strikes,  in  spite  of  occasional  vio- 
lence occasioned  by  them,  or  consequent  upon  them,  are  in  the 
main  beneficial. 


278  EflFective  Debate 

(c)  Assign  one  or  more  pupils  to  discuss  the  following  topics.  Do 
not  use  more  than  three  hundred  words.  Anywhere  from  seventy- 
five  words  up  will  be  sufficient. 

1.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  our  present  jury- 
system. 

2.  "  My  country !  may  slie  ever  be  right !  But  right  or 
wrong,  my  country ! " 

3.  The  tendency  of  athletic  games  as  at  present  conducted 
is  to  build  up  manliness  of  character. 

(/)  Let  two  pupils  on  a  side  be  appointed  to  discuss  the  questions, 

1.  Resolved,  that  a  technical  education  is  more  valuable 
than  a  general  education. 

2.  Resolved,  that  there  should  be  an  educational  qualifica- 
tion for  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  suffrage. 

{g)  Let  two  or  three  pupils  on  a  side  be  selected  to  discuss  the  fol- 
lowing questions. 

1.  Resolved,  that  the  commission  form  of  government  should 
be  adopted  in  large  cities. 

2.  Resolved,  that  the  student  who  does  not  intend  to  take 
up  a  trade  in  after  life,  benefits  fully  as  much  from  the  study 
of  manual  training  as  does  the  student  who  intends  to  become 
a  mechanic. 

3.  Resolved,  that  there  should  be  municipal  ownership  of 
all  public  franchises. 

Qi)  Organizing  a  Public  Discussion  Club.  —  Nothing  will  afford 
greater  pleasure  and  profit  to  students  who  enjoy  debate  than  a  suc- 
cessfully conducted  club,  organized  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with 
important  questions  of  the  day  in  oral  discussion  before  the  public. 
At  first  this  public  may  be  the  English  class,  and  later,  it  should  be  the 
general  public. 

1.  You  will  need  a  small  working  library,  consisting  of  the 
best  text-books  on  parliamentary  law  for  high  school  societies, 
and  several  of  the  best  books  on  high  school  debate.  By  charg- 
ing a  small  admittance  fee,  on  some  occasion  where  your  de- 


Exercises  in  Debate  279 

baters  will  afford  an  interesting   contest,  you  can  provide  a 
fund  for  this  and  other  necessary  expenses. 

2.  Let  as  many  students  as  will  agree  to  stand  by  the  club 
meet  with  your  instructor  in  English,  as  an  ex  officio  member, 
for  a  preliminary  organization.  The  public  discussion  club 
should  at  first  include  five  to  seven  or  ten  active  members, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  English  class. 

3.  Elect  a  temporary  president  and  secretary,  and  name 
one  additional  member,  the  three  to  constitute  the  preliminary 
organization.  Let  this  committee  prepare  a  good  working  plan 
for  a  permanent  organization.  Do  not  go  into  this  hastily.  It 
will  be  time  enough  to  perfect  your  organization  when  you 
have  seven  students  who  mean  business.  When  you  do  go  into 
permanent  organization,  let  it  be  with  a  club  which  shall  be  a 
permanent  feature  of  the  high  school. 

(i)  Organizing  a  Public  Discussion  League.^  —  When  your  public 
discussion  club  has  demonstrated  its  right  to  live,  find  out  whether  or 
not  there  is  a  state  league  of  such  clubs,  and  if  so,  take  the  necessary 
steps  to  enroll  your  club  as  a  member.  If  not,  go  to  work  to  interest 
two  or  three  other  high  schools  in  the  project,  and  form  a  league  in 
your  district  of  the  state. 

Debate  Live  Topics.  —  Do  not  be  afraid  to  handle  live  topics.  Such 
clubs  offer  the  best  educational  training  possible,  and  the  more  real 
the  question  to  be  debated,  the  more  interesting  will  be  the  debates. 

(y)  How  to  Organize.  —  Students  interested  in  organizing  a  public 
discussion  club  having  met,  one  of  the  students  who  issued  the  call 
for  the  meeting  rises  promptly  at  the  time  indicated  and  says,  after 
rapping  for  order : 

"  Fellow  Students,  You  will  please  come  to  order.  .  .  . 
Upon  consultation  with  a  number  of  our  students,  it  was  de- 
cided to  issue  a  call  for  a  meeting  to  organize  a  public  discus- 
sion club  in  this  high  school,  if  this  meets  with  your  approval. 


1  "  In  Indiana  there  is  under  State  supervision  a  Public  Discussion 
League  for  high  school  pupils,  the  purpose  of  which  is  the  discussion  of 
statewide  issues.  This  furnishes  a  powerful  motive  for  constructive  com- 
position work."  —  The  new  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New 
York. 


^80  Effective  Debate 

We  have  requested  one  of  our  number  to  prepare  a  statement 

of  the  aims  and  objects  of  such  a  club.     Mr.  ,  it  will 

give  us  great  pleasure  to  hear  what  you  have  to  say.'* 

At  the  conclusion  of  his  remarks,  without  delay,  one  of  the 
students  rises  and  says:  "Mr.  Chairman:  I  am  heartily  in 
accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  address  just  given.  I  move  that 
we  proceed  to  organize  a  public  discussion  club  by  the  election 
of  a  temporary  president  and  secretary,  and  that  the  president 
thus  chosen  name  a  third  member,  —  the  three  thus  chosen 
to  constitute  the  preliminary  organization^' 

The  chairman  says,  "  Is  there  a  second  to  that  motion  ?  " 
•Another  student  rises  and  says,  "Mr.  Chairman,  I  second  the 
motion." 

The  chairman  then  says,  "  Fellow  Students,  you  have  heard 
the  motion,  properly  seconded.  Are  there  any  remarks,  or  are 
you  ready  for  the  question  ?  ''  Several  students  call,  "  Ques- 
tion ! "     The  question  is  then  put  and  carried. 

"  Fellow  Students,"  the  chairman  continues,  "  you  will  pre- 
pare your  ballots    for  president.     I  shall   ask  Mr.  and 

Miss  to  act  as  tellers.  The  tellers  will  please  distrib- 
ute the  ballots.  Are  there  any  nominations  ? "  These  are 
made.  The  vote  is  taken,  counted  by  the  tellers,  and  by 
them  announced  to  the  chairman. 

The    chairman    next    says,   "Fellow   Students,   you    have 

elected  Mr.  as  temporary  president  of  this   club.     Mr. 

,  you  will  please  take  the  chair." 

The  newly  chosen  president  takes  the  chair.  He  says,  "  Are 
you  ready  for  the  election  of  a  secretary  ?  "    Nominations  are 

made,  and  Miss is  elected  secretary.     The  president  names 

a  third  member,  thus  completing  the  temporary  organization. 

The  president  then  requests  the  secretary  to  prepare  a 
paper  for  the  signatures  of  such  students  as  desire  to  become 
members  of  the  club.  These  come  forward  and  sign  their 
names,  those  thus  signing  being  known  as  charter  members. 

Secretary's  Report.  —  Write  the  secretary's  report  of  the  meeting 
ill  which  the  club  above  referred  to  was  organized. 


Exercises  in  Debate  281 

(k)  Prepare  a  speech  urging  the  organization  of  a  puhlic  discussion 
club.     Use  not  more  than  five  hundred  words. 

(/)  Prepare  a  speech  advocating  Student  Government  in  your  high 
school.  If  the  subject  is  new  to  you,  read  up  on  it.  Make  your 
speech  worth  while. 

(m)  The  High  Cost  of  Living.  —  Prepare  a  paper,  or  a  talk,  on  this 
topic.  Try  to  get  at  the  causes  that  combine  to  produce  this  con- 
dition. 

(n)  Knowledge  of  Parliamentanj  Forms.  ^  —  A  knowledge  of  simple 
parliamentary  practice  is  an  important  part  of  an  English  education. 
The  instructor  in  English  should  remain  at  the  rear  of  the  class- 
room and  take  but  little  part  in  the  work,  except  in  an  advisory 
capacity.  There  should  be  provided  a  copy  of  parliamentary  rules 
for  reference  as  to  mooted  points. 

1.  Calling  a  meeting  to  order.  —  Let  the  students  be  drilled 
in  calling  the  meeting  to  order,  both  as  a  regular  chairman, 
and  as  the  chairman  pro  tempore.  At  the  same  time,  let  the 
class  be  drilled  in  "coming  to  order"  at  the  sound  of  the 
gavel. 

2.  Rising  to  a  point  of  order.  —  Pupils  are  to  be  taught 
what  is  meant  by  rising  to  a  point  of  order,  and  how  to  act  in 
such  case. 

3.  Ruling  as  to  a  point  of  order.  —  Pupils  should  know  how 
to  act  as  chairman,  when  a  point  of  order  is  raised.  If  the 
chairman  can  show  authority  from  the  parliamentary  guide 
for  his  decision,  that  decision  is  to  stand.  If  not,  an  appeal 
may  be  made. 

4.  Appealing  from  a  decision.  —  Pupils  should  know  how 
to  make  an  appeal,  and  should  be  familiar  with  the  rules  in 
such  case.     Appeal  is  voted  on  without  debate. 

5.  Moving  the  previous  question.  —  In  order  to  cut  off  un- 
necessary or  wearisome  debate,  and  to  expedite  matters,  the 
previous  question  may  he  called  for.  The  method  of  procedure 
should  be  clearly  explained  and  illustrated.  A  motion  for  the 
previous  question  is  not  debatable. 

6.  Motion  to  go  into  executive  session.  —  Where  it  is  desired 

1  Suggested  by  the  new  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York 


282  Effective  Debate 

to  discuss  a  question  with  no  one  but  members  present,  this 
method  obtains.     Let  it  be  illustrated  in  practice. 

7.  How  to  amend  a  motion.  —  Go  into  detail  as  to  making 
amendments,  with  the  proper  procedure  in  such  case. 

8.  How  to  vote  on  a  question,  as  amended.  —  This  is  impor- 
tant.    Let  it  be  explained.     Practice  on  this. 

9.  When  is  a  motion  lost,  and  when  is  it  carried?  —  This 
should  be  made  clear  by  frequent  exercises. 

10.  Call  for  division.  —  In  case  of  doubt  in  voting,  a  mem- 
ber may  call  for  a  division.  This  should  be  granted.  Its  use 
should  not  be  carried  to  excess. 

11.  Moving  to  lay  on  the  table.  —  This  action,  if  carried, 
defers  the  consideration  of  a  question  to  a  later  time.  The 
subject  may  be  taken  from  the  table  at  any  time,  except 
where  a  definite  time  was  specified. 

12.  Motion  to  reconsider.  —  Any  member  who  voted  for  a 
motion  that  carried  may  move,  or  second,  a  motion  to  recon- 
sider. It  will  take  a  majority  to  reconsider,  and  a  majority 
may  reverse  the  action.  If  the  motion  to  reconsider  carries, 
the  original  motion  must  be  voted  on  again. 

13.  Motion  to  adjourn.^  —  A  motion  to  adjourn  is  in  order 
at  any  time,  without  debate.  But  a  member,  or  the  chairman, 
may  call  attention  to  some  important  item  of  business  before 
the  vote  is  taken. 

14.  Order  of  business.  —  There  should  be  a  carefully  pre- 
pared order  of  business.  This  may  be  changed,  however,  by 
consent,  or  by  a  vote  of  the  majority. 

15.  Quorum  to  do  busiriess.  —  The  rules  will  provide  as  to 
this,  and  the  rules  in  force  should  be  observed.  If  a  majority 
of  a  quorum  votes  for  a  motion,  the  motion  will  carry. 

16.  What  is  before  the  house?  —  This  question  is  proper 
where  a  discussion  is  in  progress,  and  there  is  no  motion  be- 


1  If  the  class,  society,  or  club  is  holding  its  meeting  during  the  recita- 
tion period,  it  is  proper  to  consult  the  instructor  before  putting  the  mo- 
tion to  adjourn.  If  the  motion  carries,  the  authority  of  the  chairman  is 
superseded  by  that  of  the  instructor  in  charge. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  283 

fore  the  house.  The  question,  of  itself,  is  sufficient  to  stop 
the  debate,  at  least  until  some  question  has  been  moved,  sec- 
onded, and  properly  put  by  the  chair. 

(o)  Oral  Summary.  —  It  is  quite  important  to  be  able  to  summarize 
orally  any  statement  made  orally.  As  practice  in  this  direction,  let 
students  be  called  on  to  summarize  oral  statements.  A  five-minute 
talk  should  be  summarized  in  one  minute ;  a  ten-minute  talk  should 
not  require  longer  than  a  minute  and  a  half,  or  two  minutes,  for  sum- 
marization. Let  one  student  make  a  certain  statement,  and  let 
another  be  required  to  get  the  gist  of  what  he  has  just  stated,  and  give 
this  gist  or  summary  orally. 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 
Cumberland  Gap. 

Made  historic  by  Daniel  Boone. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Cumberland  Gap.  —  The  mountain  on  the  right  in  this  picture 
is  in  Virginia,  while  that  on  the  left  is  in  Tennessee.  Just 
beyond  where  the  two  mountains  seem  to  meet  is  the  famous 
Cumberland  Gap^  opening  into  Kentucky,  the  only  break  for  a 
long  distance  in  the  solid  wall  of  the  Appalachians. 


284  Eflfective  Debate 

Daniel  Boone,  in  September,  1773,  as  told  in  his  Auto 
biography,  was  making  one  of  his  visits  to  Kentucky*  In 
addition  to  live  families,  he  had  with  him  about  forty  young 
men.  Just  as  Boone  with  his  main  body  was  passing  through 
the  Gap,  a  band  of  Indians  attacked  the  men  who  were  driving 
herds  of  cattle  and  a  number  of  pack  horses,  a  short  distance 
in  the  rear.  Word  quickly  reached  Boone,  who  repulsed  the 
savages  with  heavy  loss,  but  with  the  sacrifice  of  six  men,  one 
of  them  being  his  only  son. 

1.  Put  Yourself  in  His  Place.  —  Think  of  yourself  as  a  lad  in  the 
party  attacked  by  the  Indians.  Ordered  to  carry  word  to  Boone,  you 
set  out  afoot,  but  catching  a  pony,  you  mount  it  and  ride  up  to  Boone, 
tell  your  story,  and  return  with  him  to  the  scene  of  the  attack.  Tell 
the  story,  trying  to  give  it  as  it  happened. 

2.  A  Roadside  Meal.  —  You  are  a  girl  of  fifteen,  a  member  of  an 
automobile  party,  which  stops  for  lunch  near  Cumberland  Gap.  Tell 
how  the  meal  w^as  prepared,  and  describe  the  scene. 

3.  Historical  Paper.  —  Look  up  the  facts,  and  write  the  life  of 
some  pioneer  hero  or  heroine. 

4.  Visit  to  Some  Historical  Spot.  —  Give  orally  a  three-minute 
account  of  your  visit  to  some  historical  spot,  in  this  country  or 
elsewhere. 

5.  A  Pioneer  Story.  —  If  you  can  get  some  one  to  tell  you  a  story 
of  pioneer  days,  repeat  it  to  the  class.  If  your  parents  have  but  re- 
cently come  to  America,  tell  some  story  of  old  times  in  the  old  country. 
Tell  it  orally  in  three  minutes. 

6.  Dramatization.  —  Plan  a  simple  story  of  how  the  Indians 
attacked  the  early  settlers,  and  act  it  out.  It  will  not  be  hard  to 
design  and  make  appropriate  costumes  for  both  settlers  and  Indians. 


PART   FOUR 
THE    COMPONENT    PARTS    OF    EFFECTIVE    ENGLISH 

CHAPTER   XXI 
WORDS 


Words  are  but  pictures  of  our  thoughts.  —  Drtden. 


Diction  Defined. — ^^  Diction  deals  with  the  choice  of 
words  in  which  to  express  the  thought  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer.     It  implies  a  command  of  words. 

In  the  two  lines  quoted  below  there  are  by  actual  count 
sixteen  words.  With  what  multitudes  of  words  must  the 
poet  have  been  familiar,  to  paint  the  picture  the  words 
convey.  It  would  be  hard  to  crowd  more  meaning  and 
more  descriptive  power  into  two  lines. 

One  effort,  one,  to  break  the  circling  host ; 
They  form,  unite,  charge,  waver,  —  all  is  lost. 

—  Byron. 

Diction  will  be  treated  under  these  heads, — purity^ 
propriety^  and  precision. 

Purity.  — By  purity  of  diction  is  meant  the  use  of  what 
is  known  as  good  English^  and  of  that  alone.  It  prohibits 
the  use  of  (1)  foreign  words  ;  (2)  words  that  were  once 
good  English  but  are  so  no  more ;  (3)  words  not  yet 
accepted  as  pure  English ;  and  (4)  slang. 

286 


286  Words 

Foreign  Words.  — The  prohibition  of  foreign  words  in 
good  English  does  not  mean  that  a  foreign  word  is  never 
to  be  used,  for  there  are  sometimes  foreign  words  that 
have  no  exact  representatives  in  our  language.  But  it 
means  that  you  are  not  to  multiply  the  use  of  such  words. 
Any  noticeable  use  of  words  from  other  languages  is  con- 
trary to  good  usage. 

Usage.  —  Use  is  the  law  of  language.  What  is  termed 
good  usage  is  the  court  of  last  resort  in  all  cases  of  disputed 
words.  A  word  is  in  good  use  when  it  is  approved  by 
the  best  writers  and  speakers  of  the  present  day. 

Good  usage  depends  also  upon  the  place  and  way  in 
which  a  word  is  used.  A  scientific  term  in  good  use  in  a 
technical  article  may  not  be  so  in  ordinary  writing.  A 
colloquial  term,  allowable  in  the  pages  of  a  novel,  or  in  a 
good  newspaper,  might  not  be  in  good  use  elsewhere. 
The  fact  that  the  term  is  colloquial  stamps  it  as  not  being 
in  the  best  use. 

Obsolete  Words.  —  Obsolete  words  are  words  which  were 
once  in  good  use,  but  are  now  no  longer  used.  Hamlet, 
endeavoring  to  follow  the  ghost  of  his  father,  as  it 
beckons  him  on,  exclaims  as  he  shakes  himself  free  from 
the  detaining  grasp  of  the  companions  of  his  watch  : 

"  Still  am  I  called  ?•    Unhand  me,  gentlemen !  » 

By  heaven,  I'll  make  a  ghost  of  him  that  lets  me," 

meaning,  of  him  that  hinders  me.  The  word  let  has  lost 
this  signification,  except  in  tennis,  and  is,  therefore,  so  far 
as  this  meaning  is  concerned,  obsolete.  Many  words  are 
now  obsolete  which  were  once  the  best  English. 

The  Oxford  Dictionary  thus  speaks  of  the  word  cunning^ 
which  formerly  meant  "knowledge  to  do  a  thing;  abil- 
ity, skill,  expertness,  dexterity,  cleverness."  It  says  that 
cunning  is  now  used  for  the  most  part  in  a  bad  sense; 


The  Use  of  New  Words      '  287 

"skill  employed  in  a  secret  or  underhand  manner,  or  for 
purposes  of  deceit;  skillful  deceit,  craft,  artifice."  When 
we  speak  of  a  child  as  cunning^  meaning  pretty  or  pleasing, 
the  term  is  correct  colloquially^  but  it  is  not  the  best  English. 

The  Use  of  New  Words. — New  words  must  win  their 
way.  With  every  great  war,  with  every  new  trade  route, 
with  each  political  or  social  rearrangement,  with  each  in- 
vention, new  terms  appear,  and  if  they  are  worthy  to  sur- 
vive, they  take  their  place  in  the  language  and  are 
thenceforward  English  words.  But  until  a  word  is  fully 
acknowledged,  its  use  is  not  permissible  by  ordinary 
speakers  and  writers.  Not  every  new  word  has  come  to 
stay. 

The  rule  of  use  in  English  as  stated  by  Alexander  Pope 
has  never  been  improved  upon. 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold, 
Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new  or  old ; 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  is  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside. 

Slang.  —  Slang  has  been  variously  characterized,  but 
for  the  purposes  of  Effective  English  it  may  be  defined  as 
words  or  phrases,  either  newly  coined  or  with  new  mean- 
ings, and  as  yet  unaccepted  by  good  usage.  They  have 
attained  considerable  currency  and  popularity,  locally  or 
nationally,  and  are  capable  for  the  time  at  least  of  a  variety 
of  applications,  generally  with  a  witty  or  humorous  touch. 

Every  profession,  occupation,  business,  trade,  and  call 
ing  has,  in  addition  to  its  technical  terms,  a  slang  of  itv 
own.  These  slang  terms  very  often  get  into  general  cir- 
culation by  lucky  or  unlucky  accident. 

Words  of  poor  repute  come  from  the  lower  and  even  thfi 
criminal  classes,  finding  quick  circulation  in  the  lower  grade 
of  stage  entertainments,  and  often  in  the  newspapers. 


288  .        Words 

Politics  adds  a  considerable  quota  to  current  slang,  as 
do  national  and  international  happenings.  In  the  nature 
of  things,  the  use  of  slang  adds  a  certain  sprightliness  to 
the  conversation.  But  this  is  only  apparent.  One  slang 
phrase  takes  the  place  of  a  dozen  correct  expressions,  and  its 
use  on  the  part  of  some  bright  boy  or  girl  soon  palls  on  you, 
when  the  thin  and  sickly  vocabulary  becomes  noticeable. 

Acquiring  a  Vocabulary.  —  From  now  on,  it  should  be 
your  constant  aim,  in  addition  to  any  work  required  in 
class,  to  add  to  your  working  vocabulary.  Otherwise, 
you  will  use  the  same  word  in  a  variety  of  senses,  some 
of  which  will  be  inexact  and  perhaps  meaningless.  Too 
much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  your 
observing  the  directions  below,  or  of  some  intelligent  and 
persistent  method  of  acquiring  a  vocabulary. 

Directions  for  Acquiring  a  Vocabulary 

1.  Note  the  vocabulary  of  good  speakers  and  writers.  Es- 
pecially, note  the  conversation  of  a  really  good  talker. 

2.  Make  a  study  of  some  masterpiece  of  English  prose, 
deciding  for  yourself  why  you  admire  it ;  what  is  the  secret  of 
the  author's  success ;  and  what  are  its  main  characteristics. 
Make  notes  of  his  diction. 

3.  Study  synonyms. 

4.  Study  the  derivation  of  words. 

5.  Cultivate  the  art  of  careful  and  exact  definition. 

6.  Have  a  definite  plan  of  your  own,  persisted  in  and  used 
daily,  for  adding  words  to  your  vocabulary. 

7.  Practice  in  translating  from  some  other  language  into 
English,  not  only  with  sight  reading,  but  in  written  translation. 

8.  With  a  good  English  book  in  hand,  translate  into  collo- 
quial English  as  you  read. 

9.  Avoid  the  u&e  of  objectionable  slang.  Make  a  list  of 
the  correct  expressions  for  all  the  various  uses  of  your  favorite 
slang  phrases. 


Exercises  on  Vocabulary  289 

10.  Let  no  day  pass  without  consulting  the  dictionary, 
not  a  small  dictionary,  but  one  or  more  of  the  larger  diction- 
aries. The  New  International,  the  Standard,  and  the  Century 
are  all  excellent  dictionaries. 

11.  Let  no  word  pass  that  you  do  not  know.  Look  it  up 
at  the  first  opportunity.  Note  the  spelling,  the  derivation,  the 
definitions,  and  the  synonyms  and  antonyms.  Use  it  in  a  sen- 
tence of  your  own. 

12.  Spend  regularly  some  time  in  simply  reading  the  dic- 
tionary, not  aimlessly,  but  tracing  out  several  sets  of  synony- 
mous words.     This  will  be  found  to  be  a  valuable  exercise. 

EXERCISES  ON  VOCABULARY 

(a)    Try  one  or  more  of  the  following : 

1.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  words  that  you  have  been  using  re- 
cently, but  which  were  not  in  your  vocabulary  before  you  took 
up  the  study  of  rhetoric. 

2.  Compare  facilities  for  obtaining  foodstuffs  in  the  city, 
as  contrasted  with  those  in  the  country.  Weave  in  several 
new  words. 

3.  Contrast  the  condition  of  an  American  laborer  with  that 
of  the  Russian  peasant.     Use  five  new  words. 

4.  Give  twenty  words  applicable  in  some  way  to  a  fisher- 
man; his  appearance,  his  boats,  his  occupation,  his  fishing 
tackle,  his  methods. 

5.  Distinguish  between  courage  and  rashness.  Illustrate 
by  a  story  from  real  life ;  that  is,  from  something  that  has 
happened  under  your  own  observation. 

(ft)  Oral  Work.  —  Define  orally  the  words  of  the  following  list. 
Refer  to  the  dictionary,  if  the  words  are  unfamiliar. 

Almanac,  mosque,  talisman,  bazaar,  horde,  azure,  scimitar, 
jungle,  palanquin,  boomerang,  taboo,  pemmican,  Creole,  caste, 
lasso,  fetish,  ballast,  regatta,  duma,  ruble. 

(c)  Look  up  the  story  of  The  Gordon  Highlanders,  and  tell  it, 
using  ten  new  words,  and  using  them  properly. 


290 


Words 


(d)  Define  each  of  the  follotoing  in  less  than  twenty-five  words. 
Give  your  own  view,  without  looking  it  up.  Then  compare  your 
definition  with  that  of  the  dictionary. 

Aurora  borealis,  mirage,  habeas  corpus,  magna  charta,  por- 
tage, posse  comitatus,  sine  qua  non,  alluvial,  moving  the  previ- 
ous question,  contempt  of  court. 

(e)  All  the  words  of  the  following  list  are  from  the  Latin  word 
porto,  to  carry ;  from  which  comes  porta,  a  gate,  or  entrance,  or  that 
through  which  things  are  carried.  In  defining  these  words,  show  that 
the  derivation  is  indicated  in  their  meaning. 

Porter,  import,  deport,  report,  export,  comport,  port,  por- 
tage, portal,  porch,  portable. 

(/)  Round  Table  Discussion  on  Slang.  —  There  is  a  difference  in 
slang.  Let  a  round  table  discussion  on  slang  be  held,  with  one  leader 
to  open  and  close  on  each  side,  one  leader  taking  the  good  points,  the 
other,  the  objectionable  items,  in  the  use  of  slang. 


btUOUlNS    OF    THE    DeSERT. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  291 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Bedouins  of  the  Desert.  —  This  characteristic  group  is  worth 
your  study.  It  suggests,  among  other  things,  a  certain  noble 
intimacy  between  man  and  some  of  the  higher  animals,  espe- 
cially when  both  are  exposed  to  the  same  dangers  or  privations. 

Using  this  as  a  suggestion  for  your  story,  think  out  some  situation 
in  which  this  occurs.  It  may  be  a  story  of  Bedouins  and  their  ani- 
mals, camels  or  Arabian  horses ;  or  of  shepherds  and  their  dogs.  If 
your  story  is  good,  and  will  admit  of  the  use  of  a  thousand  words,  you 
may  use  as  many  words  as  that.  Otherwise,  use  from  one  to  two 
hundred  words. 

The  Dogs  of  St.  Bernard.  — Make  up  a  story  in  which  these  cele- 
brated dogs  play  a  part.  Do  not  begin  to  write  until  you  have 
thought  out  a  tale  worth  telling.  Think  interest  into  it.  Avoid 
the  use  of  too  many  words. 

Propriety. — While  a  word  may  meet  all  conditions  as 
to  purity,  yet  it  may  be  improperly  used.  Propriety  de- 
mands tliat  the  use  of  all  acknowledged  English  words 
shall  be  according  to  correct  standard  or  rule.  A  purely 
English  word  fitly  spoken  meets  the  requirements  of  pro- 
priety in  diction. 

Improprieties.  —  In  many  instances  it  is  as  much  the 
province  of  grammar  as  of  rhetoric  to  deal  with  these  in- 
accuracies. It  is  well,  however,  to  cite  a  few  instances  of 
the  more  glaring  common  mistakes  in  the  use  of  English. 

1.  Lie,  Lay  ;  Sit,  Set;  Rise,  Raise.  —  Distinguish  between 
transitive  and  intransitive  verbs.  Take  the  three  verbs,  lie, 
sit,  and  rise,  which  are  intransitive,  and  compare  them  with 
the  three  transitive  verbs,  lay,  set,  and  raise.  Learn  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  each  and  note  the  differences  in  their  use.  You 
lie  down,  you  sit  by  the  window,  you  rise  from  your  seat. 
You  lay  the  book  down,  you  set  the  chair  to  one  side,  you  7'aise 
the  window. 

2.  Shall,  Will.  —  Master  the  use  of  shall  and  will.  In  direct 
statement  in  the  first  person,  shall  denotes  futurity,  changing 


£92  Words 

to  will,  in  the  second  and  third  persons.  Similarly,  will  ex- 
presses determination  in  the  first  person,  changing  to  shall  in 
the  second  and  third  persons  to  denote  determination  on  the 
part  of  the  speaker. 

In  questions,  shall  in  the  first  and  third  persons,  has  a  po- 
tential sense;  that  is,  it  asks  advice  or  permission.  In  the 
second  person,  it  denotes  simple  futurity.  Will,  in  the  first 
and  third  persons,  denotes  futurity,  in  the  second,  willingness. 

3.  Use  of  Adjectives.  — Adjectives  follow  verbs  of  existing, 
seeming,  and  feeling.  A  rose  by  any  other  name  would  smell  as 
sweet.  Hence,  you  do  not  say,  I  feel  badly.  This  would  imply 
something  wrong  with  the  finger  tips,  where  the  sense  of  feel- 
ing chiefly  resides.  When  slightly  indisposed,  you  say, 
I  feel  bad. 

4.  Use  of  Infinitives.  —  I  meant  to  have  met  you,  is  incorrect. 
It  should  be,  /  meant  to  meet  you.  The  only  exception  to  this 
rule  is  in  the  case  of  ought,  which  has  the  same  form  past  and 
present,  and  hence  the  tense  must  show  in  the  infinitive :  1 
ought  to  do  it,  present ;  I  ought  to  have  done  it,  past.  In  all 
other  cases,  let  the  tense  show  in  the  principal  verb,  and  not  in 
the  infinitive. 

5.  The  Proper  Use  of  Prepositions.  —  The  propeT  use  of  prep- 
ositions is  an  important  element  in  cultivating  correct  speech. 
Good  use  requires  that  certain  prepositions  follow  certain 
verbs,  as  in  the  following  instances  : 

Accompanied  with    an  inani-  compare  with,  in  order  to  dis- 

mate   object ;    by  anything  cover  traits  ;  to,  in  order  to 

that  has  life.  explain, 

adjourn     to     another     place  differ  from  a  person  or  thing 

of    meeting;    for    dinner;  in   some   quality;   with,   in 

at     noon;      until     to-mor-  opinion. 

row.  different  from;  not  different 

angry   with   a  person ;    about  than. 

something  provoking.  entrance  into  a    building   or 

change  for  a   thing;   with  a  place;      upon    an     under- 

person.  taking. 


How  to  Attain  Propriety  of  Speech      293 

lay  up  savings  ;  by,  for  special  remonstrate   with    a    person ; 

purpose.  against  something. 

part  from  a  companion ;  smile  at,  in  friendliness  or 
with  something  that  you  amusement ;  upon,  in  appro- 
have,  bation. 

reconcile    to,   in    friendship  ;  suitable  to  an  occasion  ;  for  a 

with,    to    make   consistent.  purpose. 

6.  Other  Improprieties.  —  An  amusing  error  is  made  by 
those  who  in  their  desire  to  avoid  one  mistake,  fall  into  ati- 
other.  It  has  been  necessary  to  drill  certain  classes  against 
"  Me  and  him  did  it."  It  is  not  unusual  to  hear  such  persons 
say,  "  between  you  and  I,"  evidently  saying  it  with  pride. 
Pupils  who  know  better  when  they  stop  to  think,  often  say, 
*'  He  done  it,"  and  "  I  says."  Such  mistakes  are  easily  avoid- 
able, and  should  not  occur. 

How  to  Attain  Propriety  of  Speech.  —  There  is  but  one 
way  to  attain  propriety  of  speech  and  writing,  and  that  is 
to  be  ever  on  the  alert  to  speak  correctly.  Listen  to 
others,  especially  to  those  who  speak  good  English.  Let 
the  ear  try  every  expression,  your  own  and  that  of  others, 
not  so  much  to  criticize  others,  as  to  form  your  own  style 
of  speaking.  Nothing  will  take  the  place  of  a  critical 
study  of  pure  English,  day  by  day,  and  all  the  time. 

EXERCISES  IN  PROPRIETY 

(a)  Make  a  careful  list  of  ten  expressions  of  your  own  that  are 
not  the  best  English.  Do  not  read  these  in  class,  or  mention  them  to 
others.  Show  the  list  to  your  teacher,  for  suggestions  as  to  bettering 
your  speech. 

(6)  Make  a  list  of  ten  expressions  heard  in  common  conversation. 
Correct  the  mistakes  in  them. 

(c)  Write  ten  sentences,  using  correctly  the  prepositions  named  in 
the  fifth  item  given  above. 

(c?)  Write  an  editorial  of  two  hundred  words  on  the  importance  of 
using  good  English, 


294  Words 

(e)  Write  an  article  designed  for  publication  in  some  newspaper 
or  magazine.  If  you  expect  to  sell  it,  make  it  brief.  Deal  with  a 
few  glaring  inaccuracies  in  common  speech,  and  show  what  should  be 
said,  instead  of  what  is  ordinarily  said,  in  the  errors  that  you  quote. 
Make  your  article  interesting.     Use  less  than  three  hundred  words. 

Double  Negative.  —  The  use  of  two  or  more  negatives  in 
a  sentence  is  not  allowed  by  modern  usage. 

I  couldnH  find  it  nowhere,  should  be  /  could  find  it  nowhere^ 
ot  I  couldnH  find  it  anywhere. 

I  didnH  see  no  parade,  should  be  /  saw  no  parade,  or  I  didnH 
see  the  parade. 

Incorrect  Negatives.  —  But^  hardly^  only.,  and  scarcely, 
are  often  incorrectly  joined  with  a  negative. 

At  first  I  couldnH  hardly  tell  what  had  occurred,  should  be, 
At  first  I  could  hardly  tell  what  had  occurred. 

The  ice  was  so  heavy  we  couldnH  scarcely  get  across  the  river, 
should  be,  Tlie  ice  was  so  heavy  we  could  scarcely  get  across  the 
river. 

Tautology.  —  The  unnecessary  repetition  of  an  idea, 
wholly  or  in  part,  is  called  tautology,  and  should  be 
avoided. 

As,  Kindly  repeat  that  statement  again,  should  be  Kindly  re- 
peat that  statement. 

If  I  had  plenty  of  means  and  abimdance  of  wealth,  I  should 
spend  my  winters  in  Florida.  All  that  is  necessary  to  say  is, 
If  I  had  wealth,  etc.,  or  If  I  had  means,  etc. 

Pleonasm.  —  The  use  of  words  which  do  not  include 
repetition  of  the  thought,  but  which  are  unnecessary,  is 
called  pleonasm,  and  should  be  avoided. 

There  were  five  thousand  people  attended  the  meeting.  This 
should  be.  Five  thousand  people  attended,  or  There  were  five 
thousand  present. 


Precision  295 

Precision.  —  Precision  is  exactness.  In  speech  or  writ- 
ing it  implies  the  choosing  of  the  word  which  most  nearly 
expresses  the  meaning  desired.  It  implies  the  cutting  off 
of  all  ideas  other  than  those  intended.  John  Wesley's 
famous  motto,  "  Always  in  haste,  but  never  in  a  hurry," 
is  a  good  example  of  the  precise  use  of  words. 

A  witness  on  the  stand  refused  to  say  that  he  was  certain 
of  an  event  in  question,  while  admitting  that  he  was  reasonably 
sure  of  it.  Challenged  by  the  opposing  counsel  as  to  this  dis- 
tinction in  terms  the  witness  replied,  "  Well,  it  is  this  way. 
I  am  sure  that  the  sun  will  rise  to-morrow,  but  I  am  certain  it 
rose  this  morning." 

Illustrations  of  Precision.  —  Blair  makes  clear  the  dis- 
tinction between  with  and  %,  as  follows  : 

Both  these  particles  express  the  connection  between  some 
instrument,  or  means  of  effecting  an  end,  and  the  agent  who 
employs  it;  but  with  expresses  a  more  close  and  immediate 
connection;  by,  a  more  remote  one.  We  kill  a  man  with  a 
sword  ;  he  dies  by  violence.  The  criminal  is  bound  with  ropes 
by  the  executioner. 


Waiting  for  the  Signal. 
At  the  start  of  the  two-deer  ten  mile  race. 


296  Words 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Alaska.  Waiting  for  the  Signal.  —  To  encourage  the  reindeer 
industry,  reindeer  fairs  have  been  held  at  several  points  by 
representatives  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  which  has  charge 
of  the  industry.  At  the  Igloo  Fair,  just  under  the  Arctic 
Circle,  the  temperature  ranged  from  5°  to  30°  below  zero.  In 
spite  of  this  extreme  cold,  however,  delegates  came  to  the  fair 
from  points  several  hundred  miles  distant.  So  universal  has 
the  employment  of  reindeer  become  that  one  delegate  who  still 
clung  to  his  dog  team,  and  had  not  yet  adopted  the  reindeer 
said,  "  I  am  all  the  same  as  if  I  wasn't  here  at  all !  " 

Here  is  shown  Billy  Otpelle,  waiting  the  signal  to  start  in  a 
two-deer  ten  mile  race.  In  the  crowd  which  stands  about,  all 
the  clothing  that  shows  white  is  made  of  reindeer  skins. 

These  fairs  have  greatly  advanced  the  reindeer  industry,  and 
have  awakened  the  native  herders  to  the  possibility  of  better- 
ment. The  fairs  develop  new  methods  of  butchering,  of 
skinning  the  animals  and  of  preserving  the  skins,  and  of  pre- 
serving the  meat.  They  teach  the  natives  how  to  break  the 
deer  for  sleds,  how  to  make  halters  and  harness,  and  the  best 
methods  of  sled  construction.  They  are  a  real  "  reindeer  in- 
stitute," where  all  the  best  reindeer  men  meet  and  discuss 
matters  of  practical  interest. 

Tell  the  story  of  a  reindeer  race,  as  if  you  had  seen  one,  or  partici- 
pated in  one.     Use  the  picture  to  give  you  a  proper  "  atmosphere." 

EXERCISES  m  PRECISION 

(a)  The  Human  Hand.  —  The  hand  gives  man  his  chief  advantage, 
mechanically,  over  other  animals.  Read  up  on  this  topic  in  the  school 
or  public  library.     Be  precise  in  yoiir  use  of  words. 

(6)  Problems  in  Efficiency.  —  If  you  know  how  to  do  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing things,  do  one  or  more  of  them.  Endeavor  to  describe  the 
process  so  that  those  who  hear  you  can  do  the  same  thing,  and  do  it  well. 

1.  Work  for  Girls.  —  (a)  Make  chocolate  creams.  (6)  Pre- 
pare a  Welsh  rabbit  or  rarebit,  (c)  Prepare  a  delicious  fruit 
salad,  (d)  Use  the  chafing-dish,  and  make  an  oyster  stew, 
(e)  Make  cocoanut  candy,  or  chocolate  fudge. 


Exercises  in  Precision  297 

2.  Work  for  Boys.  —  (a)  Describe  a  simple  but  effective 
rabbit-trap,  (b)  Tell  how  to  fish  for  bass,  (c)  Tell  how  to 
find  the  North  Star,  (d)  Make  a  box  for  a  simple  card- 
file system,  (e)  Take  a  steel  fishing-rod,  put  it  together,  attach 
the  reel,  and  get  it  ready  for  fishing,  using  artificial  bait.  Ex- 
plain each  step  as  you  proceed,  so  that  each  member  of  the  class 
will  not  only  understand  the  points  you  make,  but  be  able  to  put 
the  rod  together,  and  take  it  apart,  and  get  it  fully  ready  for  use. 

(c)  A  Restatement.  —  Study  carefully  the  following  brief  statement 
taken  from  an  editorial  in  the  London  Times.  Use  it  as  the  basis  of  a 
paper  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  words,  in  which  you  restate  the  propo- 
sition in  your  own  words,  and  treat  it  in  your  own  way. 

Get  away  from  the  style  of  the  Times.  Feel  perfectly  free  to  dis- 
cuss and  illustrate  your  topic  as  you  see  fit. 

In  order  to  get  two  hundred  and  fifty  words,  you  may  have  to  write 
a  statement  of  four  or  five  hundred  words,  or  even  of  a  thousand  words, 
and  then  boil  it  down.  You  can  say  as  much  in  five  hundred  words 
as  in  a  thousand,  and  the  chances  are  that  it  will  be  better  said.  Try 
it,  making  sure  that  your  use  of  words  is  characterized  by  precision. 

Muddling  Through 

It  is  not  in  war  alone  that  the  people  of  England  cling  to 
the  unfortunate  belief  that  we  shall  muddle  through  somehow. 
On  the  contrary,  the  phrase  is  as  thoroughly  characteristic  of 
the  mental  attitude  of  the  Briton  as  is  the  "  to-morrow  "  of  the 
Spaniard.  As  a  nation,  we  really  believe  in  muddling  through, 
and  are  rather  proud  of  ourselves  for  believing  in  it.  There 
is  a  deep-seated  feeling  that  it  is  un-English  to  attempt  any- 
thing more,  and  that  our  dignity  requires  us  to  eschew  that 
eagerness  in  organizing  our  forces  and  utilizing  our  opportuni- 
ties which  other  nations  do  not  blush  to  display. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  feeling  is  not  nearly  so  respectable 
as  we  fondly  imagine.  It  is  the  product  of  intellectual  lazi- 
ness and  false  pride.  Muddling  is  a  thing  to  be  ashamed  of, 
and  a  thing  which  proper  pride  makes  a  man  ashamed  of,  how- 
ever successful  he  may  be  in  it. 

—  London  Times. 


£98  Words 

1.  Look  up  authorities  on  the  Eusso-Japanese  war,  show- 
ing that  Eussia  did,  and  Japan  did  not,  miiddle  through  that 
war.  Be  accurate  in  your  facts,  and  precise  in  your  use  of 
words. 

2.  Show  that  England  in  the  Boer  war,  and  the  United 
States  in  the  Spanish  war,  had  to  muddle  through,  instead  of 
carrying  on  the  war  on  a  scientific  military  basis. 

3.  Write  a  paper  on  Preparedness,  in  both  army  and  navy. 

4.  State  in  twenty-five  to  fifty  words,  what  you  deem  to  be 
the  opposite  of  muddling  through.  Apply  your  definition  to 
national  affairs,  if  you  please.     Or  let  it  apply  to  school  work. 

5.  Discuss  the  United  States  training  camps  at  Plattsburg, 
New  York,  or  elsewhere. 

6.  Does  your  football  team,  or  your  basket  ball  team  try  to 
win  by  rmiddling  through  9  If  so,  discuss  muddling  through 
with  special  reference  to  the  football  or  basket  ball  situation. 
Study  precision. 

(d)  Vocational  Guidance. — Efficiency  vs.  Unpreparedness.  Pre- 
pare an  argument  for  the  study  of  manual  training  in  the  high  school. 
Show  that  it  really  prepares  the  student  for  life  beyond  the  school. 

(e)  A  Meeting  of  the  Oral  Club.  —  Let  the  English  class  organize 
as  an  oral  club.  The  object  of  this  exercise  is  to  suggest  what  may 
be  done  in  the  way  of  oral  work  in  the  high  school.  I^t  a  special 
committee  of  three  be  appointed  at  least  a  week  in  advance  to  pro- 
vide suitable  assignments  for  each  member  of  the  class.  Let  a  presi- 
dent, vice  president,  secretary,  and  two  others  be  elected,  the  vice 
president  and  the  two  others  composing  the  committee  on  program. 

1.  Speeches. — A  political  speech  from  the  representatives 
of  at  least  three  political  parties.  An  educational  address.  A 
talk  on  vocations.     A  plea  for  the  athletic  association. 

2.  Addresses.  —  How  to  conduct  a  debate.  What  is  meant 
by  the  statement  of  the  question  ?  Definition  of  terms  used 
in  debate.  Distinction  between  assertion  and  proof.  The 
nature  of  evidence.     How  to  win  a  debate. 

The  advantages  of  the  profession  of  teaching.  —  What  it  takes 
in  the  way  of  preparation.    What  it  offers  in  the  way  of  social 


Exercises  in  Precision  299 

advantage,  of  opportunities  for  study  and  research,  in  the  way 
of  salary,  and  in  the  way  of  openings  into  other  professions. 
The  rewards  that  come  to  one  who  definitely  gives  himself  to 
teaching. 

3.  Disaissions.  — -Two  students,  one  on  a  side,  are  to  discuss 
the  following  or  suggested  topics.  Is  America  a  world  power  ? 
Are  the  opportunities  for  public  speaking  as  great  now  as 
formerly  ?  Living  in  the  country  as  compared  with  living  in 
the  city.  Is  the  world  growing  better  ?  Do  we  need  both  a 
football  and  a  basket  ball  organization  in  our  high  school? 
Shall  our  students  learn  some  trade?  Which  language  will 
prove  of  most  practical  benefit  to  us,  French,  German,  or 
Spanish?  Shall  I  study  shorthand?  Which  offers  more, 
civil  engineering  or  writing,  as  a  profession? 


CHAPTER  XXII 
DERIVATION  OF  WORDS 


The  knowledge  of  words  is  the  gate  of  scholarship.  —  Wilson. 


Synonyms.  —  Synonyms  are  words  which,  while  not 
absolutely  the  equivalent  of  other  words,  mean  nearly  the 
same  thing.  They  are  alike  in  meaning,  yet  with  an  es- 
sential difference  between  them. 

Take  the  two  words  readable  and  legible.  They  have  a 
meaning  in  common,  both  denoting  capable  of  being  read. 
Readable  applies  to  interest  in  the  subject  matter  chiefly, 
while  legible  implies  plainness  of  the  writing.  The  manu- 
script may  be  legible,  whether  the  story  it  contains  is 
readable  or  not. 

The  English  language,  from  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  its  history,  abounds  in  synonymous  terms.  The  fine 
and,  in  some  cases,  almost  exquisite  shades  of  meaning 
expressed  by  two  sets  of  derivatives,  the  one  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  the  other  from  the  Norman-French,  enrich 
our  vocabulary  in  a  way  unknown  to  other  languages. 

Word  History.  —  The  Anglo-Saxon  is  the  real  basis  of 
English.  But  a  great  number  of  our  words  are  derived 
from  the  Latin,  or  from  the  Norman-French,  which  was  in- 
troduced after  the  Conquest,  by  William  of  Normandy, 
A.D.  1066.  From  that  time  on  the  great  body  of  the 
people  spoke  Anglo-Saxon,  with  an  increasingly  large 
infusion  of  the  Norman- French  ;  while  the  ruling  classes 

300 


Word  History  301 

expressed  themselves  in  Norman-French  when  they  could, 
reluctantly  coming  year  by  year  to  use  Saxon. 

Thus  there  were  in  almost  every  instance  in  the  speech 
of  this  blended  people,  two  distinct  sets  of  words  for  the 
same  idea.  Oftener  than  otherwise  the  Saxon  word  con- 
quered. Sometimes  the  Saxon  word  was  displaced  by  the 
Norman,  as  in  the  case  of  swincan,  which  gave  way  before 
labor. 

In  many  cases,  however,  the  Latin  divided  ground  with 
the  Saxon,  color  existing  side  by  side  with  hue,  and  jot/ 
with  bliss.  Of  course,  when  the  idea  expressed  was  new 
to  the  Saxons,  the  Norman  word  was  used.  But  in  most 
cases  both  Saxon  and  Norman  words  survived,  as  is  humor- 
ously and  skillfully  shown  in  the  extract  from  Ivanhoe, 
quoted  below.  In  such  case,  however,  there  is  always  a 
shade  of  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  words. 

"  Why,  how  call  you  those  grunting  brutes  running  about  on 
their  four  legs  ?  "  demanded  Wamba. 

"  Swine,  fool,  swine,"  said  the  herd,  "  every  fool  knows 
that." 

"  And  swine  is  good  Saxon,"  said  the  jester ;  "  but  how  call 
you  the  sow  when  she  is  flayed,  and  drawn,  and  quartered,  and 
hung  by  the  heels  like  a  traitor  ?  " 

"  Pork,"  answered  the  swineherd. 

"  I  am  very  glad  every  fool  knows  that  too,"  said  Wamba ; 
"  and  pork,  I  think,  is  good  Norman-Erench  ;  and  so  when  the 
brute  lives,  and  is  in  charge  of  a  Saxon  slave,  she  goes  by  her 
Saxon  name  ;  but  becomes  a  Norman,  and  is  called  pork,  when 
she  is  carried  to  the  castle  hall  to  feast  among  the  nobles. 
What  dost  thou  think  of  this  doctrine,  friend  Gurth,  ha  ?  " 

"  It  is  but  too  true  doctrine,  friend  Wakiba,  however  it  got 
into  thy  fooFs  pate." 

"  Nay,  I  can  tell  you  more,"  said  Wamba,  in  the  same  tone. 
"  There  is  old  Alderman  Ox  continues  to  hold  his  Saxon  epithet 
while  he  is  under  the  charge  of  serfs  and  bondsmen  such  as 


302  Derivation  of  Words 

thou,  but  becomes  beef,  a  fiery  French  gallant,  when  he  arrives 
before  the  worshipful  jaws  which  are  destined  to  consume  him. 
He  is  Saxon  when  he  requires  tendance,  but  takes  a  Norman 
name  when  he  becomes  a  matter  of  enjoyment." 

—  From  Ivanhoe,  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Examples  of  Synonyms.  —  In  some  cases  a  word  has 
come  to  us  directly  from  the  Latin,  while  its  derivative 
through  the  French  has  another  distinct  shade  of  meaning. 
This  is  shown  in  such  words  as  the  following : 


From  the  Latins  direct 

Through  the  French 

populace 

people 

fidelity 

fealty 

regal 

royal 

fragile 

frail 

quiet 

coy 

fact 

.      feat 

secure 

sure 

The  distinction  in  terms  is  still  more  clear,  however, 
when  words  that  have  come  to  us  from  the  Saxon  and 
from  the  Norman-French  are  compared.  The  following 
list  of  synonymous  words  will  illustrate  this. 


Anglo-Saxon 

Norman-FreiKh 

begin 

commence 

blessing 

benediction 

meal 

flour 

mild 

gentle 

feeling 

sentiment 

work 

labor 

hearty 

cordial 

For  the  sake  of  variety,  words  that  are  synonymouB^  or 

nearly  so,  are  of  great  advantage  to  the  speaker  or  writer. 

For  instance,  you  may  speak  of  the  meaning^  sense,  or 


How  to  Find  Synonyms  303 

interpretation  of  a  passage  of  Scripture.  These  words, 
meaning,  sense,  and  interpretation,  are  almost  inter- 
changeable, and  may  be  used  the  one  for  the  other.  In 
like  manner,  the  words,  tired^  weary^  and  fatigued^  afford 
variety  of  expression. 

How  to  Find  Synonyms.  —  When  you  cannot  think  of 
the  right  word,  reference  to  a  dictionary,  or  to  a  book  of 
synonyms,  will  help  you.  For  example,  Blair  refers  to  a 
list  of  more  than  thirty  words  expressive  of  some  form  of 
anger. 

The  International^  Century^  and  Standard  dictionaries 
are  all  valuable.  The  Oxford  New  English  Dictionary 
may  prove  helpful.  March's  Thesaurus  Dictionary  is  de- 
voted to  synonyms,  and  there  are  many  other  valuable 
books  on  synonyms.  Trench  On  the  Study  of  Words  is  an 
excellent  reference  book  on  the  subject. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNONYMS 

(a)  Finding  Terms  That  are  Nearly  Synonymous.  —  March's 
Thesaurus  Dictionary  gives  the  following  words  having  the  general 
idea  of  swiftness,  each  with  its  own  variation.  You  are  to  select 
five  from  the  list,  and  compare  the  five  thus  chosen  with  five  other 
words  in  the  list. 

Active,  agile,  eagle-winged,  electric,  expeditious,  express, 
fast,  fleet,  flying,  galloping,  light-footed,  light-heeled,  mer- 
curial, nimble,  nimble-footed,  quick,  quick  as  lightning,  quick 
as  thought,  rapid,  speedy,  swift,  swift  as  an  arrow,  telegraphic, 
winged. 

(h)  Definitions  and  Illustrations.  —  Look  up  definitions  and  illus- 
trations, and  distinguish  between  the  terms  of  the  following  list.  Use 
twenty-five  words  in  defining  each  pair  : 

Liberty  and  anarchy;  law  and  tyranny;  ignorance  and 
illiteracy ;  joy  and  happiness  ;  environment  and  heredity. 

(c)  Common  Ideas.  —  1.  In  the  following  list  of  five  words,  note 
the  one  idea  which  they  have  in  common.  Define  each  term,  and 
distinguish  between  it  and  the  term  nearest  to  it  in  meaning : 


304  Derivation  of  Words 

Furlough,  vacation,  respite,  leave  of  absence,  reprieve. 

2.  Ill  tlie  following  list  of  ten  words,  all  more  or  less  synonymous, 
define  each  word  in  such  a  way  as  to  distinguish  it  from  the  others  of 
the  list  : 

Alacrity,  animation,  cheer,  cheerfulness,  exhilaration,  gaiety, 
geniality,  glee,  good  humor,  high  glee. 

(J)  Distinctive  Meanings.  —  Define  the  words  of  the  lists  below,  so 
as  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other : 

1.  Cloudless,  unobscured,  effulgent,  garish,  lucent. 

2.  Contraband,  unauthorized,  unlicensed,  illicit,  illegal. 

(e)  Special  List.  —  Define  each  word  in  the  following  list,  dis- 
tinguishing between  each  word,  and  the  word  or  words  nearest  to 
it  in  meaning : 

Faith,  assent,  assurance,  belief,  certainty,  confidence,  con- 
viction, credence,  opinion,  persuasion. 

(/)  The  Use  of  the  Dictionary.  —  1.  Define  the  following  and  give 
their  etymology : 

individual  residence  tortuous  sinuous  termination 

occult  extinguish  connote  pillory  transform 

accomplish  articulate  recluse  preclude  exacerbated 

antagonist  protagonist  cognizance  progenitor  forbears 

2.  Go  to  the  dictionary  for  the  derivation  of  the  following  words : 

Algebra,  thimble,  dandelion,  dahlia,  ostracize,  academy, 
diamond,  squirrel,  cathedral,  calomel,  dactyl,  cardinal,  spider, 
gingham,  calico^  damask,  magnolia,  mosaic,  rosary,  ventilate, 
saleratus. 

3.  Find  the  meaning  of  the  following  words  relating  to  archi- 
tecture : 

Mansard,  cornice,  colonnade,  fresco,  facade,  arcade,  spire, 
portico,  peristyle,  porch. 

(g)  Pictures  in  Words.  —  Trace  the  derivation  of  the  following 
words,  and  tell  what  picture  they  bring  to  your  mind : 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


305 


Heirloom,  accolade,  gunwale,  cadence,  plight,  frugal,  scud- 
ding, arching,  fantastic,  misanthrope. 


One  of  the  World's  Beauty  Spots. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

One  of  the  "World's  Beauty  Spots.  —  Here  is  perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  and  celebrated  of  the  Italian  lakes.  Lake  Como.  It 
is  situated  thirty  miles  north  of  Milan,  in  Lombardy,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Alps. 

Study  this  landscape,  and  decide  on  "what  its  wonderful  beauty 
depends.  Write  a  paper  on  the  topic,  The  Elements  of  Beauty,  using 
several  synonyms. 

Beauty  at  Home.  —  America  abounds  in  beauty.  If  you  have 
viewed  the  ever-changing  color  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan,  or 
of  the  other  northern  lakes ;  or  the  beauty  of  the  Hudson,  the  Susque- 
hanna, the  Potomac,  the  Greenbriar,  the  Ohio,  and  other  streams ; 
or  the  beauty  of  Lake  Champlain ;  or  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Co- 
lumbia, or  the  Oregon  rivers;  or  if  you  have  visited  one  of  the 
National  Parks,  —  describe  one  of  these,  or  any  body  of  water,  large 


306  Derivation  of  Words 

or  small,  that  to  you  seems  beautiful ;   or  any  landscape  that  appeals 
to  you.     Use  a  number  of  synonyms. 

Etymology.  —  Etymology  is,  literally,  a  study  of  the 
true  meaning  of  words.  It  looks  into  the  history  of 
words,  tracing  their  origin  and  their  primitive  significance. 
It  also  examines  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
their  form  and  meaning.  Skeat's  Etymological  Dictionary 
is  a  standard  work  on  this  subject,  and  worth  consulting. 

A  careful  study  of  the  derivation  of  words  will  help 
you  to  gain  an  effective  command  of  language  by  giving 
quick  insight  into  their  meaning,  as  will  be  seen  by  not- 
ing the  following  interesting  etymologies  : 

1.  Words  like  Lancaster  and  Dorchester,  names  of  old 
towns  in  England,  derive  their  terminations  -caster  and  -Chester 
from  castra,  a  camp.  Where  these  towns  now  stand,  the  old 
Eoman  camps  were  located,  during  the  days  of  the  Eoman 
occupation  of  the  island. 

2.  The  word  procrastinate,  meaning  to  put  off  until  to-morrow 
has  the  word  eras  imbedded  in  it,  so  to  speak,  and  eras  means 
to-morrow.     This  affords  a  strong  clue  to  its  meaning. 

3.  Accelerate  meaning  to  hasten,  has  in  it  two  words,  ad 
and  celer,  which  mean  adding  to  the  swiftness. 

4.  The  nasturtium  is  a  common  flower.  It  derives  its  name 
from  nasuSj  the  nose,  and  torsum,  from  torquere,  to  twist,  allud- 
ing to  the  wry  face  one  "makes  on  account  of  its  pungent  odor. 

5.  An  interesting  derivation  is  found  in  halcyon}  When 
you  have  spent  some  unusually  pleasant  days,  you  may  say  in 
looking  back  upon  them,  "  Those  were  halcyon  i  days.'' 
Halcyon  is  Greek  for  the  bird  known  as  the  kingfisher,  which  is 
said  to  fish  only  on  still,  quiet  days.  A  halcyon  day  is  there- 
fore a  day  on  which  the  halcyon,  or  kingfisher,  would  go  fishing. 

6.  Thoreau,  in  his  essay  on  "  Walking,"  takes  occasion  to 
refer  to  the  etymology  of  sauntering;  "which  word"  he  says 


1  See  also  derivation  given  in  the  International  Dictionary. 


Exercises  in  Word  Derivation  307 

''is  beautifully  derived  from  idle  people  who  roved  about 
the  country,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  asked  charity,  under 
pretence  of  going  d,  la  Sainte  Terre,  to  the  Holy  Land,  till 
the  children  exclaimed,  'There  goes  a  Saint-Terr er,  a  Saun- 
terer,  a  Holy-Lander." 

EXERCISES  IN  WORD  DERIVATION 

(a)  Interesting  Derivations.  —  1.  All  the  words  of  the  following 
list  have  interesting  derivations.     Look  up  the  etymology  of   each. 

Mastodon,  trivial,  accumulate,  exasperate,  irritate,  rhinoc- 
eros, idiom,  abundant,  intellect,  circumspect,  specie,  incarcerate, 
sterling,  lunatic,  affable,  inculcate,  sympathy,  compassion. 

2.  Look  up  the  derivation  of  the  following  terms,  and  use  each 
correctly  in  a  sentence. 

Aggravate,  simultaneously,  extinguish,  approximate,  idio- 
syncrasy, obliterate,  supersede,  circumlocution,  eliminate, 
anxious,  strategy,  decoration,  insult,  constancy,  sacrament, 
opponent,  rival,  discrimination,  insulate,  recapitulation. 

(h)  Derivations  of  Proper  Names.  —  1.  Look  up  the  derivation 
of  the  days  of  the  week. 

2.  Look  up  the  derivation  of  the  names  of  the  months. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  names  of  boys,  or  of  girls,  and  look  up 
the  derivations  of  these  names. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  twenty  surnames,  and  look  up  their  derivations. 
(c)  Special    Test.  —  Differentiate   between   the    following  words, 

comparing  them  all  with  the  one  word,  evidence,  and  showing  how 
each  of  them  differs  from  this  one  word.     Trace  the  derivation  of  each. 

Evidence,  testimony,  proof,  attestation,  protestation,  witness, 
affirmation,  confirmation,  averment. 

{d)   General  Exercise.^  —  Try  two  or  more  of  the  following : 

1  A  class  was  vnriting  a  theme  in  which  the  word  house  was  found  to 
be  constantly  repeated.  They  were  asked  to  suggest  synonyms  for  house. 
Building,  edifice,  construction,  mansion,  palace,  cottage,  hovel,  hut, 
cabin,  residence,  home,  shelter,  dwelling,  abiding-place,  abode,  were 
some  of  the  words  proposed  and  discussed.  —  From  The  Teaching  of  High 
School  English,  State  of  New  Jersey. 


308  Derivation  of  Words 

1.  Make  a  list  of  twenty-five  words,  the  names  of  things 
in  ordinary  use  in  the  home,  or  in  school,  or  in  offices.  Look 
up  the  derivation  of  each  in  an  unabridged  dictionary. 

2.  Look  up  the  derivation  of  the  following  words,  and 
show  how  it  enters  into  the  meaning  of  each: 

Idiot,  rival,  pagan,  villain,  civil,  czar,  cicerone,  pantaloon, 
pedagogue,  post.  * 

3.  Trace  the  history  of  the  following  words,  enough  to 
show  that  the  name  arose  from  an  error: 

Indian,  humor,  artery,  melancholy,  Gothic,  leopard,  turkey, 
disastrous,  amethyst,  empyrean. 

4.  State  something  relating  to  the  history  of  the  following 
words : 

Gazette,  journal,  Presbyterian,  Methodist,  Protestant, 
Catholic,  telegraph,  automobile,  convent,  America. 

(e)  Misuse  of  Words. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  five  words  commonly  misused  in  school. 
Be  careful  to  avoid  any  personal  remarks,  and  do  not  reflect 
in  any  way  upon  your  school. 

2.  Make  a  list  from  popular  magazines  of  five  words  that 
are  improperly  used.  Indicate  what  words  should  be  used  in 
each  case. 

(/)  Marvelous  Synonyms.  —  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance 
of  words  unlike  in  form,  but  thoroughly  alike  in  meaning,  is  found  in 
one  of  O.  Henry's  short  stories,  "  By  Courier,"  found  in  the  collection 
entitled  The  Four  Million.  If  this  is  read  in  class,  as  it  will  be  well 
worth  while  to  do,  let  it  be  only  on  condition  that  it  be  given  by  the 
best  reader  in  the  school.  Let  the  pupils  listen  to  discover  at  least 
five  synonyms  in  the  courier's  translation  of  his  message. 

(g)  A  Little  Study  in  Synonyms.  —  The  following  lines  by  H.  M. 
Kingery,  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  illustrate  in  a  humorous 
way  some  of  the  current  synonyms  found  in  novels  for  the  words 
says  or  said.  It  would  take  but  little  study  to  find  many  more  such 
words.  Make  a  list  of  ten  words  not  found  in  this  list,  which  are 
good  synonyms  of  the  verb  say  in  some  of  its  forms. 


Exercises  in  Word  Derivation  309 

Said 

Thauk  you,  kind  sir,"  she  sweetly  said  — 

But  said,  we're  told,  is  obsolete. 
The  modem  hero,  thoroughbred, 

Would  stoop  to  nothing  so  effete. 
He  states,  affirms,  declares,  asserts. 
He  whispers,  murmurs,  booms,  and  blurts  ; 
He  rumbles,  and  mumbles,  and  grumbles,  and  snorts^ 
He  answers,  replies,  rejoins,  and  retorts  — 
But  never  by  any  chance  says. 
He  hisses,  wheezes,  whines,  and  howls, 
He  husks  and  brusques,  he  grunts  and  growls. 
He  (horrors  !)  nasals,  yells,  and  wails. 
He  warns  and  scorns,  he  rails  and  quails  — 

But  says?    — 0,  no  I 
He  grants,  admits,  agrees,  assents, 
Concedes,  and  even  compliments, 
He  challenges,  regrets,  denies. 
Evades,  equivocates,  and  lies  — 

And  says?    Not  so. 
He  wanders  and  ponders,  considers  and  wonders, 
He  speculates,  calculates,  puzzles,  and  blunders. 
He  argues  and  quibbles,  defends  or  accuses, 
Accepts,  acquiesces,  or  flouts  and  refuses  — 

But  says?    — Pooh  pooh ! 
He  flutters,  worries,  rants,  and  tears. 
He  sparkles,  flashes,  blazes,  flares ; 
He  chuckles,  grins,  and  cachinnates. 
He  gloats,  exults,  and. jubilates  — 
But  says  ?    —  Taboo ! 
0,  shades  of  Thackeray  and  Scott, 

Of  Kipling  and  that  hapless  throng. 
All  born  untimely  !     Bitter  thought : 
They  never  knew  that  said  was  wrong ! 

—  New  York  Evening  Post 


310 


Derivation  of  Words 


Photooraph  by  Frank  C.  Sage, 
Winning  with  Daylight  Between. 

The  others  will  never  make  it ! 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Winning  with  Daylight  Between.  —  This  shows  a  fine  finish 
in  the  mile  run,  with  an  excited  crowd  of  spectators  urging 
the  other  runners  to  the  top  of  their  speed.  The  crowd  offers 
an  interesting  study.  You  can  almost  hear  the  wild  roar  as 
they  cheer  the  contestants  on. 

1.  A  Track  and  Field  Meet.  —  Tell  your  experiences  at  such  a 
gathering. 

2.  How  he  Won.  —  Write  a  short  story,  using  this  picture  to 
illustrate  how  your  hero  came  in  ahead.  Crowd  it  with  incident  and 
interest. 

3.  Preparing  an  Illustration.  —  Nothing  offers  a  finer  illustration 
of  the  value  of  persistence  than  some  such  scene  as  this.  Prepare  such 
an  illustration  for  use  in  an  address.  Do  not  go  beyond  one  hundred 
words. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
THE  SENTENCE 


A  form  of  speech  .  .  .  of  such  a  length  as  to  he  easily  comprehended 
at  once.  —  Aristotle. 


Sentence  Defined.  —  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses,  so  arranged  as  to  make  sense  and  bring 
out  one  complete  thought. 

The  fmidamental  rule  of  the  construction  of  sentences, 
and  that  into  which  all  other  rules  might  be  resolved  is,  to 
communicate  in  the  clearest  and  most  natural  order  the  ideas 
which  we  mean  to  convey  to  the  minds  of  others, 

—  Blair. 

Short  and  Long  Sentences.  —  Sentences  are  distinguished 
as  short  and  long.  At  present  the  tendency  is  towards 
short  sentences,  especially  in  newspaper  work.  There  is 
no  hard  and  fast  rule,  but  there  are  a  few  general  princi- 
ples in  the  use  of  sentences  which  it  will  be  well  to  note. 

Short  sentences  give  clearness  and  force  to  speech  or 
writing.  But,  where  there  are  too  many  short  sentences, 
the  sense  is  split  and  broken,  the  connection  of  thought  is 
weakened,  and  the  memory  burdened  by  presenting  to  it 
a  too  rapid  succession  of  minute  objects. 

When  well  managed,  long  sentences  lend  dignity  to  the 
thought.  But  they  require  more  attention  than  short 
sentences,  in  order  that  we  may  perceive  the  connection 
of  the  several  parts,  and  take  in  the  whole  at  one  view. 

311 


312  The  Sentence 

Moods  Influencing  Sentence  Lengths.  —  What  the  speaker 
or  writer  feels  will  manifest  itself  in  the  length  of  his  sen- 
tences. In  time  of  danger,  sentences  narrow  to  single 
words  of  warning  or  command.  Intense  excitement  will 
show  in  short,  quick,  nervous  sentences,  especially  at  the 
beginning.  Deep  feeling,  or  thought  where  the  writer 
has  himself  well  in  hand,  will  express  itself  in  longer 
sentences. 

Importance  of  Variety.  —  A  proper  distribution  of  short 
and  long  sentences  gives  effectiveness  to  language,  and 
gratifies  the  ear.  The  short  sentences  add  sprightliness, 
while  the  longer  periods  confer  a  gravity  and  dignity 
which  would  otherwise  be  lacking.  Each  relieves  the 
monotony  of  the  other.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
selection  given  below,  from  Patrick  Henry. 

They  tell  us,  Sir,  that  we  are  weak ;  unable  to  cope  with  so 
formidable  an  adversary.  But  when  shall  we  be  stronger? 
Will  it  be  the  next  week,  or  the  next  year  ?  Will  it  be  when 
we  are  totally  disarmed,  and  when  a  British  guard  shall  be 
stationed  in  every  house  ?  Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irreso- 
lution and  inaction  ?  Shall  we  acquire  the  means  of  effectual 
resistance  by  lying  supinely  on  our  backs,  and  hugging  the 
delusive  phantom  of  hope,  until  our  enemies  shall  have  bound 
us  hand  and. foot?  We  are  not  weak,  if  we  make  a  proper 
use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of  nature  hath  placed  in  our 
power. 

-r-  Patrick  Henry's  Speech  before  the  Virginia  Convention, 

Component  Parts  of  the  Sentence.  —  A  sentence  is  made  up 
of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.  A  phrase  is  either  a  prepo- 
sition and  its  object,  or  some  form  of  the  infinitive.  A  clause 
is  a  part  of  a  sentence  which  contains  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate of  its  own.  The  illustrative  sentence  on  the  next 
page  is  from  Thomas  Jefferson's  First  Inaugural  Address. 


The  Balanced  Sentence  313 

Error  of  opinion  may  be  tolerated  where  reason  is  left  free 
to  combat  it. 

This  sentence  contains  one  prepositional  phrase,  of 
opinion  ;  and  one  infinitive  phrase,  to  combat.  Besides  its 
principal  clause,  error  of  opinion  may  he  tolerated^  it  also 
contains  a  subordinate  clause,  where  reason  is  left  free  to 
combat  it. 

The  Balanced  Sentence.  —  A  sentence  composed  of  two 
clauses  similar  in  form,  and  having  these  clauses  set  over 
against  each  other  in  antithesis,  is  called  a  balanced  sentence. 
If  used  skillfully,  and  not  too  often,  it  is  very  effective. 
The  following  passage  is  made  up  of  balanced  sentences  : 

Homer  was  the  greater  genius  ;  Virgil,  the  better  artist ;  in 
the  one,  we  most  admire  the  man ;  in  the  other,  the  work. 
Homer  hurries  us  with  a  commanding  impetuosity;  Virgil 
leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer  scatters  with  a 
generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnifi- 
cence. Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a 
sudden  overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  within  its  banks,  with  a 
constant  stream.  — Pope. 

Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences.  —  With  regard  to  the 
manner  of  their  construction,  sentences  are  loose  or 
periodic. 

The  Loose  Style.  —  In  the  loose  style  of  sentences,  the 
sense  is  formed  into  short,  independent  propositions  each 
complete  within  itself.  Of  the  two  styles,  loose  and  peri- 
odic, the  loose  is  the  livelier  and  more  striking.  The  fol- 
lowing are  examples  of  loose  sentences  : 

I  confess  it  was  want  of  consideration  that  made  me  an 
author.  I  wrote  because  it  amused  me.  I  corrected,  because 
it  was  as  pleasant  for  me  to  correct  as  to  write.  I  published 
because  I  was  told  that  I  might  please  such  as  it  was  a  credit 
to  please.  —  Alexander  Pope,  in  his  Preface  to  his  Works. 


314  The  Sentence 

Where  company  hath  met,  I  have  often  observed  two  per- 
sons discover,  by  some  accident,  that  they  were  bred  together 
at  the  same  school  or  university,  after  which  the  rest  are  con- 
demned to  silence,  and  to  listen  while  these  two  are  refreshing 
each  other's  memory  with  the  arch  tricks  and  passages  of 
themselves  and  their  cojnrades. 

—  Essay  on  Conversation,  Swift. 

In  Swift's  sentence,  there  could  very  easily  be  placed  a 
period  after  the  word  university ;  another  sentence  could 
end  at  the  word  silence.  And  with  hardly  any  change,  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  would  make  a  third  sentence,  as,  for 
instance,  "They  would  have  to  listen  while  these  two, 
etc."  These  three  sentences  are  loosely  joined  to  make 
the  one  sentence  as  Swift  wrote  it. 

In  the  selection  from  Pope,  by  adding  a  few  simple  con- 
junctions the  whole  passage  could  be  thrown  into  one 
loose  sentence.  It  reads  better,  however,  as  Pope  wrote 
it. 

The  Periodic  Style.  —  In  the  periodic  style,  the  sen- 
tences are  composed  of  several  members  so  linked  together, 
that  the  sense  of  the  whole  is  not  brought  out  until  the 
close.  There  is  usually  more  beauty  in  the  periodic  style 
of  speaking  and  writing.  The  semicolon  is  more  fre- 
quently employed  in  the  periodic  style  than  in  loose  con- 
struction. The  sentences  given  below  are  in  the  periodic 
style. 

By  a  curious  irony  of  fate,  the  places  to  which  we  are  sent 
when  health  deserts  us  are  often  singularly  beautiful. 

—  Stevenson. 

Those  who  roused  the  people  to  resistance ;  who  directed 
their  measures  through  a  long  series  of  eventful  years;  who 
formed  out  of  the  most  unpromising  materials  the  finest  army 
that  Europe  had  ever  seen  ;  who  trampled  down  King,  Church, 


The  Periodic  Style  315 

and  Aristocracy;   who,  iii   the   short  intervals    of   domestic 

sedition  and  rebellion,  made  the  name  of  England  terrible  to 

every  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth  —  were  no  vulgar  fanatics. 

—  "  The  Puritans,"  in  the  Essay  on  Milton,  Macaulay. 

If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as 
well  as  your  own ;  if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honor, 
and  how  many  die  without  name  or  children ;  how  little  beauty 
we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we  hear  of ;  how  many  diseases, 
and  how  much  poverty  there  is  in  the  world ;  you  will  fall 
down  upon  your  knees,  and  instead  of  repining  at  one  afflic- 
tion, you  will  be  thankful  for  the  many  blessings  which  you 
have  received  from  the  hand  of  God. 

—  Sir  William  Temple,  in  a  letter  to  Lady  Essex, 

No  writer  employs  all  loose,  or  all  periodic,  construc- 
tion. Writers  like  Carlyle  incline  to  loose  construction, 
while  De  Quincey  prefers  periodic  sentences.  In  the 
Booh  of  Joh^  and  in  the  Psalms^  periodic  constructions 
abound. 

For  a  remarkable  illustration  of  a  series  of  periodic  sen- 
tences, refer  to  Macaulay's  account  of  the  battle  of  Landen, 
in  chapter  xx,  Vol.  I,  History  of  England,  The  follow- 
ing is  the  first  of  eight  consecutive  periodic  sentences  : 

Never,  perhaps,  was  the  change  which  the  progress  of 
civilization  has  produced  in  the  art  of  war  more  strikingly 
illustrated  than  on  that  day. 

In  colloquial  use,  or  in  ordinary  writing,  we  employ  the 
loose  construction.  In  set  speech,  and  in  declamations,  as 
well  as  in  careful  writing,  the  occasional  use  of  periodic 
sentences  is  advisable.  Each  style  has  its  advantage. 
The  charm  of  a  loose  sentence  lies  \i\  its  ease;  but  a  peri- 
odic sentence  is  more  apt  to  keep  to  the  point,  and  to  hold 
your  attention  to  the  end. 


316 


The  Sentence 


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Michigan  Avenue  and  Grant  Park,  Chicago. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Michigan  Avenue  and  Grant  Park,  Chicago.  —  This  is  a  scene 
characteristic  of  America.  The  resistless,  driving  energy, 
the  numerous  automobiles,  the  majestic  buildings,  represent 
mighty  wealth  and  power.  To  the  right,  though  not  showing 
in  this  picture,  are  Lake  Michigan  and  Chicago's  famous  lake 
front. 

TJie  Skyscraper  District.  —  You  may  wish  to  recognize  some 
of  these  buildings.  First  is  the  Blackstone  Hotel,  the  large 
dark,  building  being  the  International  Harvester  Building. 
Then  comes  the  Congress  Hotel,  the  Auditorium  Hotel,  the 
Fine  Arts  Building.  The  tall  black  building  far  to  the  rear  is 
the  McCormick  Building.  The  white  building  beyond  is  the 
Eailway  Exchange,  and  alongside  is  the  People's  Gas  Building. 
The  tower  is  on  the  Montgomery  Ward  mail-order  house.  The 
last  building  showing,  which  looks  so  low  compared  to  the 
others,  is  the  Art  Institute,  holding  a  great  art  collection. 

If  you  live  in  Chicago,  or  visit  Chicago,  view  this  scene  and  describe 
it  orally,  or  in  writing.      , 

Unity  in  the  Sentence.  —  Since  a  sentence  is  defined  as 
the  expression  of  a  single  thought,  that  one  thought  or 


Use  of  Connectives  317 

idea  should  have  the  right  of  way.  Test  your  sentences 
for  unity,  and  do  not  rest  satisfied  until  you  have  made 
them  meet  the  tests  that  are  indicated  below. 

Four  Tests  for  Unity  in  Sentences.  —  1.  Have  you  changed 
the  scene  in  a  sentence  ?  That  is,  did  you  begin  by  consider- 
ing one  thing,  and  end  by  considering  another  ?  If  so,  rewrite 
the  sentence. 

2.  Have  you  crowded  things  into  one  sentence  that  have 
so  little  connection  that  they  could  have  been  divided  into  two 
or  three  sentences?  If  so,  put  your  thought  into  as  many 
sentences  as  may  be  necessary. 

3.  Have  you  used  a  parenthesis  in  a  sentence  ?  If  so, 
think  your  sentence  over.  Decide  whether  the  parenthetical 
thought  can  be  dispensed  with.  If  you  feel  that  it  is  essential, 
make  another  sentence  of  it. 

4.  Have  you  added  a  word  or  phrase  to  your  sentence,  after 
you  had  completed  the  thought  ?  If  so,  change  it.  In  writ- 
ing sentences,  learn  to  quit  when  you  are  through. 

Use  of  Connectives.  —  Pay  special  attention  to  the  use  of 
connectives.  Words  like  and^  hut^  which^  whose,  that, 
where,  while,  since,  therefore,  when,  then,  etc.,  which  are 
either  connective  or  transitional,  are  frequently  the  most 
important  words  in  the  sentence.  They  are,  as  has  been 
said,  "the  joints  and  hinges  on  w^hich  all  sentences  turn." 

Uses  of  the  Word  "And."  —  As  illustrations  of  how  the 
use  of  the  word  and  defies  rules,  and  requires  a  power  of 
discrimination  which  can  come  only  from  careful  practice, 
note  the  following  sentences: 

1.  By  the  unskillful  use  of  and,  the  members  of  a  sentence 
are  piled  up  into  a  mere  jumble  of  words,  as  where  Flora 
speaks  in  Dickens'  story  of  Little  Dorritt : 

"  Flora  was  so  sorry  to  have  kept  her  waiting,  and  good 
gracious  why  did  she  sit  out  there  in  the  cold  when  she  had 
expected  to  find  her  by  the  fire  reading  the  paper,  and  hadn't 


318  The  Sentence 

that  heedless  girl  given  her  the  message  then,  and  had  she 
really  been  in  her  bonnet  all  this  time,  and  pray  for  goodness' 
sake  let  Flora  take  it  off  ! " 

2.  But  in  the  sentence  from  Bolingbroke,  "Such  a  man 
might  fall  a  victim  to  power ;  but  truth,  and  reason,  and 
liberty,  would  fall  with  him,"  note  how,  by  the  repetition  of  the 
same  word  and,  the  mind  rests  for  a  moment  on  each  added 
thought,  thus  greatly  strengthening  the  effect. 

3.  Yet  .when  Caesar  would  convey  in  a  sentence  all  the 
swiftness  of  his  conquest,  he  drops  the  word  and  altogether 
and  says,  "  I  came  ;  I  saw  ;  I  conquered." 

Clearness  in  the  Sentence.  —  Clearness  of  thought  is  the 
first  essential.  If  you  know  what  you  want  to  say,  you 
will  find  a  way  to  say  it.  Therefore  the  thing  to  do  is  to 
think  your  way  out,  instead  of  trying  to  write  your  way 
out. 

Careful  Use  of  Pronouns.  —  Errors  in  the  use  of  personal 
pronouns  are  not  sp  common  as  mistakes  in  the  use  of 
relatives,  but  it  is  important  to  keep  an  eye  upon  them. 
The  fewer  personal  pronouns  in  a  sentence  the  better. 

Writers  who  value  clearness  have  to  be  careful  not  to 
misplace  the  relative  pronoun. 

A  writer  of  ability  tells  us  that  "  It  is  folly  to  pretend  to 
arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by  heaping  up 
treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the  good 
providence  of  our  heavenly  Eathep."  He  would  have  us 
believe,  by  the  construction  of  his  sentence,  and  his  use  of  the 
word  which  J  that  the  providence  of  God  is  the  only  thing  that 
can  protect  us  against  heaped-up  treasures.  What  he  means  is, 
that  "  It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to  arm 
ourselves  against  accidents,  which  nothing  can  protect  us 
against  but  the  good  providence  of  our  heavenly  Father." 

The  Effective  Sentence.  —  To  make  a  sentence  effective, 
divest  it  of  all  unnecessary  words.     Quintilian's  rule  still 


Exercises  on  Sentences  319 

holds,  —  "Whatever  does  not  help,  hinders."  .  For 
example,  the  sentence,  "  Being  content  with  deserving  a 
triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it,"  is  much  more  effec- 
tive when  written,  "  Content  with  deserving  a  triumph, 
he  refused  the  honor  of  it." 

The  effective  sentence  should  be  tested  not  only  for 
unity,  but  for  clearness.  Apply  the  following  tests  to 
every  sentence  you  write. 

Five  Tests  for  Clearness.  —  1.  Is  your  thought  clear?  If 
not,  think  it  out. 

2.  Have  you  in  every  instance  used  the  right  word  in  the 
right  place  ?  If  not,  wrestle  with  your  sentence  until  it  says 
what  you  want  it  to  say. 

3.  Have  you  misplaced  a  relative  pronoun  ?  If  so,  put  it 
where  it  belongs. 

4.  Have  you  too  many  personal  pronouns  in  your  sentence  ? 
If  so,  write  your  sentence  again.  If  necessary,  make  two  or 
three  sentences  of  it,  rather  than  have  too  many  personal 
pronouns  in  a  single  sentence. 

5.  Read  your  sentence  for  the  final  revision.  Is  there  a 
word  too  much?  If  so,  omit  it.  Your  sentence  will  be 
clearer  without  it. 

EXERCISES  ON  SENTENCES 

(a)  Short  and  Long  Sentences.  —  In  the  following  exercises,  try  to  • 
secure  variety  and  smoothness  by  the  appropriate  use  of  long  and 
short  sentences. 

1.  Refer  to  Stevenson's  Treasure  Island^  chapter  xv,  where 
young  Jim  Hawkins  finds  the  marooned  sailor,  Ben  Gunn, 
on  the  island.  Read  it  over,  and  then  tell  the  story  in  short 
sentences  of  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  words  each.  Boil  the 
story  down,  omitting  all  conversation,  and  do  not  use  more 
than  ten  sentences. 

2.  Read  chapter  xi,  "  What  I  heard  in  the  Apple  Barrel," 
in  Treasure  Island^  and  tell  the  story  in  longer  sentences,  say 


320  The  Sentence 

of  from  fifteen   to  twenty-five   words  each,  using   about  ten 
sentences. 

3.  Refer  to  Hawthorne's  story  of  "  The  Golden  Touch "  in 
his  Wonder  Bookj  where  King  Midas  has  his  wish  granted 
that  Little  Marygold  should  have  the  power  of  turning  every- 
thing she  touches  *to  gold.  Tell  it  in  ten  or  twelve  sentences, 
long  or  short. 

4.  Tell  some  story  you  have  in  mind,  using  long  or  short 
sentences. 

(&)  Loose  Construction. — In  the  exercises  below,  do  not  let  your 
loose  sentences  become  ragged.  Loose  does  not  mean  careless.  Loose 
sentences  should  be  as  carefully  written  as  periodic  sentences. 

1.  Refer  to  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc.  Tell  it  in  hot  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  words,  putting  your  sentences  into 
the  loose  style  of  construction. 

2.  If  you  ever  had  a  chase  after  an  escaped  canary,  or  a 
pet  squirrel,  recall  the  incident,  and  tell  it  in  one  hundred 
words.     Use  the  loose  construction. 

3.  Did  you  ever  go  seining  for  minnows  ?  If  so,  tell  your 
experiences.  Use  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  words,  in  the 
loose  construction. 

4.  Did  you  ever  visit  a  home  where  they  owned  a  parrot  ? 
Tell  something  about  it,  using  the  loose  construction.  Make 
it  interesting,  and  short. 

5.  Refer  to  the  article  on  "Indian  Arrowheads,"  in  The 
Saturday  Evening  Post  of  September  23,  1916.  Read  it  over, 
and  retell  it  in  your  own  words.     Use  the  loose  construction. 

(c)  Periodic  Construction.  —  Before  trying  the  following,  review  the 
treatment  of  periodic  sentences. 

1.  Contrast  the  ordinary  go-as-you-please  farming  with 
what  is  known  as  modern  scientific  farming.  Use  at  least 
three  periodic  sentences. 

2.  Contrast  the  life  of  the  sailor  of  to-day  on  a  man-of-war, 
with  life  on  shipboard  as  detailed  in  Dana's  Two  Tears  Before 
the  Mast.    Use  at  least  two  periodic  sentences. 


Important  Cautions  321 

3.  Tell  what  you  mean  by  a  "live  wire."  Do  not  define 
the  term,  but  draw  a  contrast  between  two  students,  one  of 
whom  is,  and  the  other  is  not,  a  "  live  wire."  Be  careful  not 
to  give  offense.  Mention  no  names.  Use  at  least  one  good 
periodic  sentence. 

(d)  Connectives.  — Remember  how  much  depends  upon  the  proper 
use  of  connectives.     Try  to  use  them  effectively. 

1.  Use  the  following  connectives  properly  in  sentences : 
who,  which,  that,  what,  lahatever,  whose,  ichen,  ivhile,  as,  since. 
The  sentences  may  refer  to  any  of  the  material  used  in  this 
set  of  exercises. 

2.  Tell  about  something  that  happened  so  long  ago  that  it 
will  make  no  difference  now,  but  which  you  promised  at  the 
time  never  to  tell.  See  if  you  can  get  along  without  using  the 
word  and,  but  use  five  conjunctive  adverbs. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  three  coordinate  and  three  subordinate 
connectives,  and  use  them  in  telling  the  story  oijive  minutes 
in  the  life  of  a  student,  who,  having  gone  to  a  party  the  night 
before,  has  not  been  able  to  prepare  for  recitations  to-day. 

Important  Cautions.  —  It  may  be  well  for  the  permanent 
editorial  committee^  in  conjunction  with  the  instructor  in 
English,  to  call  attention  to  the  following  requirements  as 
to 

The  Use  of  the  Comma  ^ 

XXIII.  The  first  rule  for  the  comma  is :  Do  not  use  it  at 
all  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it.     Its  use  is  necessary,  however, 

1.  To  set  off  absolute  phrases.  —  Where  a  phrase  contains 
an  absolute  nominative,  you  are  to  use  a  comma.     As, 

They  had  some  difficulty  in  passing  the  ferry  at  the  river- 
side, the  ferryman  being  afraid  of  them. 

2.  To  set  off  parenthetic   expressions.  —  Except  in   rare  in- 


1  From  Bequirements  in  Form,  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 


322  The  Sentence 

stances,  the  parenthesis  marks  are  not  used,  the  comma  taking 
their  place.     As, 

The  time  had  come,  or  at  least  I  thought  it  had,  for  me  to 
take  my  departure. 

3.  To  set  off  non-restrictive  clauses.  —  By  a  non-restrictive 
clause  is  meant  one  that  is  explanatory,  or  that  gives  an  addi- 
tional thought.  Such  a  clause  must  be  set  off  by  a  comma. 
As, 

George  Washington,  who  had  received  his  training  in  the 
French  and  Indian  ivar,  was  chosen  as  the  leader  of  the 
Americans. 

The  thought  in  the  italicized  clause  is  additional  to  the 
main  thought.  It  gives  an  explanation  of  the  statement  made 
in  the  principal  clause. 

The  relative  clause  is  said  to  be  restrictive  when  it  limits  or 
restricts  the  meaning  of  the  antecedent.  For  instance,  in  the 
sentence. 

That  is  the  best  rabbit  dog  that  I  ever  owned,  the  clause 
that  I  ever  owned,  restricts  or  limits  the  meaning  of  the  ante- 
cedent dog.     In  this  case  no  comma  is  required. 

4.  To  set  off  participial  phrases.  —  As, 

Armed  with  the  consciousness  of  his  innocence,  he  faced  his 
accusers  courageously. 

XXiy.  These  additional  uses  of  the  comma  may  be  noted : 

1.  To  take  the  place  of  omitted  words  ;  as, 

The  first  man  was  an  American ;  the  second,  an  Irishman. 

2.  To  set  apart  a  short  quotatio7i  or  similar  expression;  as. 
The  stranger  said,  "  What  are  you  waiting  for  ?  " 

What  I  cannot  understand  is,  where  does  he  get  the 
money? 

"  Come  quickly,"  he  said,  "  if  you  wish  your  coming  to  be  of 
any  avail." 

Note :  The  comma  is  not  used  with  an  exclamation  point, 
or  with  an  interrogation  point ;  as, 

"  Who  goes  there  !  "   the  sentinel  cried. 

"  Why  are  you  so  hasty  ?  "   said  his  mother. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


323 


Natural  Bridge,  Virginia. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Natural  Bridge,  Virginia.  —  This  fine  picture  of  one  of 
Nature's  efforts  at  practical  architecture  was  taken  by  a  stu- 
dent on  vacation,  and  borrowed  from  his  scrapbook. 


324  The  Sentence 

Do  you  use  the  camera?  Select  a  good  snapshot,  and  tell  two 
things  about  it:  (a)  what  it  represents;  and  (b)  under  what  circum- 
stances it  was  taken.  Suppose  you  put  this  exercise  in  letter  form, 
as  if  addressed  to  a  friend,  with  the  snapshot  attached. 

A  Little  Story  of  Adventure.  —  Write  a  short  story  of  adventure, 
using  this  scene  as  the  place.  Make  it  worthy  of  the  scene,  or  do 
not  complete  your  story.  Suppose  you  give  an  account  of  how  a 
friend  rescues  you,  as  you  attempt  to  climb  down  from  the  top  of  the 
Natural  Bridge. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
THE   PARAGRAPH 


Deliberately  plan  your  paragraphs . 

—  Barrett  Wendell. 


Paragraph  Defined.  —  A  paragraph  is  a  sentence  or  a 
group  of  sentences  so  arranged  as  to  develop  a  complete 
thought. 

In  the  paragraph  quoted  below  from  Mark  Twain,  he 
sets  out  to  do  a  certain  thing  and  accomplishes  it.  As 
you  read,  one  idea  is  clearly  developed.  You  discover 
what  was  the  ambition  of  every  boy  in  the  village  where 
Mark  Twain  spent  his  boyhood. 

When  I  was  a  boy,  there  was  but  one  permanent  ambition 
among  my  comrades  in  our  village  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  That  was,  to  be  a  steamboatman.  We  had 
transient  ambitions  of  other  sorts,  but  they  were  only  tran- 
sient. When  a  circus  came  and  went,  it  left  us  all  burning  to 
become  clowns  ;  the  first  negro  minstrel  show  that  ever  came 
to  our  section  left  us  all  suffering  to  try  that  kind  of  life ;  now 
and  then  we  had  a  hope  that,  if  we  lived  and  were  good,  God 
would  permit  us  to  be  pirates.  These  ambitions  faded  out, 
each  in  its  turn ;  but  the  ambition  to  be  a  steamboatman 
always  remained. 

—  Life  on  the  Mississippij  Mark  Twain. 

The  paragraph  bears  the  same  relation  to  sentences 
that  sentences  bear  to  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.  It  is 
the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  sentence  that  brings 
out  the  complete  thought  in  the  sentence ;  and  it  is  the 

326 


326  The  Paragraph 

arrangement  of  the  sentences  composing  the  paragraph 
that  brings  out  the  complete  thought  of  the  paragraph. 

Long  and  Short  Paragraphs. — Paragraphs  may  be 
long  or  short.  They  are  considered  long  if  they  contain 
more  than  one  hundred  words,  short  if  they  contain  fewer 
than  one  hundred. 

Effect  Secured  by  Short  and  Long  Paragraphs. — Each 
style  of  paragraph  is  marked  by  a  characteristic  effect 
upon  the  mind  of  the  reader.  Short  paragraphs  are  easier 
to  read  and  understand ;  they  have  what  may  be  said  to 
be  a  light  effect ;  they  give  quicker  movement  to  the 
thought.  Where  events  move  rapidly,  the  paragraphs  get 
shorter,  until  sometimes  one  sentence  becomes  a  paragraph, 
and  that  one  sentence  may  become  a  single  word. 

On  the  other  hand,  long  paragraphs  take  longer  to  read, 
and  they  are  correspondingly  harder  to  master  ;  they  are 
said  to  produce  a  heavy  effect;  they  give  slower  move- 
ment and  more  dignity  to  the  thought.  Short  paragraphs 
would  ill  become  portrayals  of  majestic  events.  Argu- 
ments addressed  to  thinking  bodies  of  men  would  fail  in 
their  intended  effect  if  they  did  not  clothe  themselves  in 
sentences  and  paragraphs  of  befitting  length  and  dignity. 

Two  Reasons  for  Paragraphing.  —  There  are  two  reasons 
for  the  use  of  pa^lfgraphs.  The  first  is  for  the  sake  of  the 
reader.  He  cannot  readily  take  in  the  meaning  of  a  full, 
unbroken  page  of  printed  matter,  and  so  the  writer  sim- 
plifies things  for  him  by  breaking  up  the  page  into 
smaller  sections,  or  paragraphs. 

Secondly,  the  paragraph  is  important  for  the  sake  of  the 
writer  himself  The  paragraph  is  the  unit  of  prose.  In 
order  to  make  the  whole  composition  effective,  the  writer 
must  begin  with  the  paragraph,  and  make  it  effective. 
The  way  to  accomplish  this  is  to  plan  your  paragraphs. 

Planning   Your    Paragraphs.  —  You    have    already,   in. 


Testing  Your  Paragraphs  327 

Chapters  IV  and  VII,  studied  how  to  plan  your  para- 
graphs. The  niethbd  there  suggested  is  still  to  be  kept 
in  mind.  As  you  begin  to  think  about  the  theme  upon 
which  you  are  to  write  or  speak,  first  set  'down  brief 
notes  of  your  thoughts  in  whatever  order  they  come  to 
your  mind.  Then  arrange  each  of  these  topics  in  a  sen- 
tence, to  be  known  as  the  topic  sentence. 

If  you  plan  to  use  several  paragraphs,  write  each  of 
these  topic  sentences  upon  a  separate  slip,  and  arrange 
these  slips  in  the  order  in  which  you  desire  them  to  come, 
until  you  have  found  the  best  possible  order.  Then  re- 
write these  topic  sentences  in  that  order. 

In  no  other  way  can  you  obtain  so  effectively  a  logical 
order.  Your  paragraphs  will  hold  together,  and  your 
outline,  made  up  of  the  topic  sentences  in  proper  order, 
will  give  you  a  brief  of  your  entire  composition. 

Testing  Your  Paragraphs.  —  Not  only  does  your  topic 
sentence  help  you  in  writing  your  paragraph,  but  it  is  the 
best  test  of  your  paragraph  after  it  is  written.  If  all 
that  your  paragraph  says  can  he  summed  up  in  one  clear 
sentence^  your  paragraph  is  well  written. 

How  to  Arrange  Your  Paragraphs.  —  There  can  be  no 
fixed  rule  how  to  arrange  your  paragraphs.  Your  own 
judgment  in  each  case  must  decide.  This  judgment, 
carefully  exercised,  will  after  some  practice  bring  a  cer- 
tain skill  in  paragraph  arrangement. 

The  following  suggestions,  however,  may  prove  helpful : 

1.  In  recalling  an  incident  within  your  own  knowledge, 
the  order  of  events,  or  time  order,  may  be  most  effective. 

2.  In  reproducing  a  story,  your  paragraphs  may  be  related 
by  keeping  in  mind  the  thread  of  the  story. 

3.  In  description,  the  logical  order  may  help  ;  in  an  experiment, 
for  instance,  the  steps  oftheexperiment;  in  dealing  with  the  make- 
up of  the  human  body,  the  arrangement  of  the  parts,  and  so  on. 


328  The  Paragraph 

4.  If  you  have  unusual  skill  as  a  writer  or  speaker,  it  may 
show  itself  in  an  aHistic  ari'angement,  or  in-  some  strong  dra- 
matic effect. 

Example'  from  Burke. — The  selection  from  Burke, 
given  below,  shows  how  clearly  each  paragraph  is  out- 
lined in  a  topic  sentence,  which  in  this  case  proves  to  be 
the  opening  sentence  of  each  paragraph. 

On  the  Use  of  Force 

First  J  Sirj  permit  me  to  observe  that  the  use  of  force  alone  is 
but  temporary.  It  may  subdue  for  a  moment,  but  it  does  not 
remove  the  necessity  of  subduing  again ;  and  a  nation  is  not 
governed  which  is  perpetually  to  be  conquered. 

My  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty.  Terror  is  not  always 
the  effect  of  force,  and  an  armament  is  not  a  victory.  If  you 
do  not  succeed,  you  are  without  resource ;  for,  conciliation 
failing,  force  remains ;  but,  force  failing,  no  further  hope  of 
conciliation  is  left.  Power  and  authority  are  sometimes 
bought  by  kindness  ;  but  they  can  never  be  begged  as  alms  by 
an  impoverished  and  defeated  violence. 

A  further  objection  to  force  is  that  you  impair  the  object  by 
your  very  endeavors  to  preserve  it.  The  thing  you  fought  for 
is  not  the  thing  which  you  recover;  but  depreciated,  sunk, 
wasted,  and  consumed  in  the  contest.  Nothing  less  will  con- 
tent me  than  whole  America.  I  do  not  choose  to  consume  its 
strength  along  with  our  own,  because  in  all  parts  it  is  the 
British  strength  that  I  consume.  I  do  not  choose  to  be 
caught  by  a  foreign  enemy  at  the  end  of  this  exhausting  con- 
flict ;  and  still  less  in  the  midst  of  it.  I  may  escape ;  but  I 
can  make  no  insurance  against  such  an  event.  Let  me  add, 
that  I  do  not  choose  wholly  to  break  the  American  spirit; 
because  it  is  the  spirit  that  has  made  the  country. 

Lastly,  we  have  no  sort  of  experience  in  favor  of  force  as  an 
instrument  in  the  rule  of  our  Colonies.  Their  growth  and 
their  utility  has  been  owing  to  methods  altogether  different. 
Our  ancient  indulgence  has  besn  said  to  be  pursued  to  a  fault 


Developing  the  Paragraph  329 

It  may  be  so.  But  we  know  if  feeling  is  evidence,  that  our 
fault  was  more  tolerable  than  our  attempt  to  mend  it;  and 
our  sin  far  more  salutary  than  our  penitence. 

—  On  Conciliation  with  the  Colonies,  Burke 

Developing  the  Paragraph.  —  After  you  have  decided 
upon  your  topic  sentences,  and  their  arrangement,  the 
next  thing  is  to  develop  them  into  paragraphs.  How  to 
do  this  rests  with  you,  provided  that  your  paragraph 
deals  with  one  topic,  and  with  that  alone,  and  discusses 
that  topic  effectively.  But  while  you  are  free  to  choose 
how  to  develop  your  paragraphs,  it  will  be  well  to  note 
the  following  methods. 

Methods  of  Developing  Paragraphs.  —  Paragraphs  may 
be  developed  by  any  of  the  following  methods : 

1.  Developing  the  topic  sentence  hy  repetition. 

2.  Developing  the  topic  sentence  by  comparison  or  contrast. 

3.  Developing  the  topic  sentence  by  the  use  of  details. 

4.  Developing  the  topic  sentence  by  the  use  of  examples  or 
specific  instances. 

5.  Developing  the  topic  sentence  by  the  use  of  cause  and  effect. 

Suggestions  to  the  Writer.  —  The  following  suggestions 
are  worth  keeping  in  mind  at  all  times. 

1.  Kemember  to  indent  your  paragraph. 

2.  Keep  within  one  hundred  words. 

3.  Watch  your  use  of  subordinate  and  coordinate  con- 
nectives. 

4.  Test  your  paragraph  to  see  if  your  topic  sentence  tells 
the  story  of  your  paragraph ;  and  also,  if  it  tells  of  anything 
not  suggested  m  your  topic  sentence.     . 

Developing  the  Paragraph  by  Repetition.  —  Many  excel- 
lent writers  bring  out  the  thought  they  wish  to  express  in 
a  paragraph  by  simply  repeating  the  thought  in  various 
ways,  as  in  the  following  example  from  Dickens. 


330 


The  Paragraph 


The  mill  which  had  worked,  them  down,  was  the  mill  that" 
grinds  young  people  old ;  the  children  had  ancient  faces  and 
grave  voices ;  and  upon  them,  and  upon  the  grown  faces,  ajid 
ploughed  into  every  furrow  of  age  and  coming  up  afresh^  was 
the  sign.  Hunger.  It  was  prevalent  everywhere.  Hunger  was 
pushed  out  of  the  tall  houses,  in  the  wretched  clothing  that 
hung  upon  poles  and  lines ;  Hunger  was  patched  into  them  with 
straw  and  rag  and  wood  and  paper ;  Hunger  was  repeated  in 
every  fragment  of  the  small  modicum  of  firewood  that  the  man 
sawed  off ;  Hunger  stared  down  from  the  smokeless  chimneys. 
Hunger  was  the  inscription  on  the  baker's  shelves,  written  in 
every  small  loaf  of  his  scanty  stock  of  bad  bread.  Hunger 
rattled  its  dry  bones  among  the  roasting  chestnuts  in  the  turned 
cylinder ;  hunger  was  shred  into  atomies  in  every  farthing  por- 
ringer of  husky  chips  of  potato,  fried  with  some  reluctant 
drops  of  oil. 

—  Tale  of  Two  Cities^  Dickens. 


The  Dream.  — Detaille. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  331 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  Soldier's  Dream.  —  The  vast  army  sleeps,  while  those 
charged  with  the  duty  of  sentry  keep  watch.  As  they  sleep, 
they  dream,  —  some  of  home  and  friends,  some  of  the  scenes  of 
their  childhood.  Detaille,  the  artist,  pictures  the  dream  of  a 
soldier.  Up  in  the  clouds  marches  the  Grand  Army,  on  to  vic- 
tory !  While  the  flag  of  his  own  regiment  is  shown  in  the 
foreground,  furled  for  the  night,  notice  how  the  standards  of 
the  army  he  beholds  in  dreams  show  the  path  to  victory. 

Interpret  this  picture  as  you  please,  and  describe  it. 

Jacob's  Dream.  —  Tell  the  story  of  that  night  at  Bethel,  when  the 
young  adventurer,  fleeing  from  home,  has  a  vision  of  the  ladder  let 
down  from  heaven,  with  angels  ascending  and  descending.  You  will 
find  it  in  Genesis,  xxviii,  10-22. 

A  Love  Dream.  —  Let  a  good  reader  recite  "  The  Romance  of  the 
Swan's  Nest,"  by  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning.  It  tells  the  dream  of 
a  little  girl,  as  she  sits  by  the  brookside.  Or,  if  you  choose,  tell  the 
story  orally,  in  your  own  words. 

EXERCISES   m   DEVELOPMENT   BY  REPETITION 

Development  by  Repetition. — In  the  following  paragraphs,  do  not 
let  the  repetition  become  monotonous. 

1.  Kefer  to  Longfellow's  Hiawatha,  xx,  "The  Famine," 
and  master  the  story.  Then,  getting  away  from  the  strange 
rhythm,  translate  it  into  plain  prose.  Endeavor  by  repeiiYton 
to  develop  a  paragraph  of  seventy-five  words,  describing  the 
famine. 

2.  Take  this  sentence  as  a  seed-thought,  and  developing  it> 
make  a  paragraph  of  one  hundred  words.  "Who  does  not 
admire  the  patience  with  which  the  men  of  the  Revolution  met 
the  sufferings  they  had  to  endure  ?  " 

3.  Prepare  an  argument  for  athletics  in  the  high  school. 
Bo  this  by  developing  this  sentence  into  a  paragraph,  using 
repetition.  "High  school  athletics  deserves  the  support  of 
every  right  minded  and  loyal  student  in  this  school." 


332  The  Paragraph 

Developing  a  Paragraph  by  Comparison  or  Contrast.  —  One 

of  the  commonest  methods  of  explaining  things  in  ordi- 
nary conversation  is  by  telling  what  a  thing  is  like;  or  how 
it  differs  from  something  else.  We  compare  or  contrast 
things  at  every  turn.  This  method  is  quite  effective  in 
building  up  a  paragraph.  The  paragraph  quoted  below 
is  a  good  example : 

Tact  and  Talent 

Take  them  to  the  bar,  and  let  them  shake  their  learned 
curls  at  each  other  in  legal  rivalry ;  talent  sees  its  way  clearly, 
but  tact  is  first  at  its  journey's  end.  Talent  has  many  a  compli- 
ment from  the  bench,  but  tact  touches  fees.  Talent  makes  the 
world  wonder  that  it  gets  on  no  faster,  tact  arouses  astonish- 
ment that  it  gets  on  so  fast.  And  the  secret  is,  that  it  has  no 
weight  to  carry ;  it  makes  no  false  steps  ;  it  hits  the  right  nail 
on  the  head ;  it  loses  no  time ;  it  takes  all  hints ;  and,  by 
keeping  its  eye  on  the  weather-cock,  is  ready  to  take  advantage 
of  every  wind  that  blows. 

—  The  London  Atlas. 

EXERCISES   m   DEVELOPMENT   BY   COMPARISON   OR   CONTRAST 

Development  by  Comparison  and  Contrast.  —  In  the  following  exer- 
cises, try  to  use  both  comparison  and  contrast  in  each  paragraph. 

1.  Contrast  the  sports  of  summer  and  winter,  and  in  so 
doing,  develop  a  paragraph  of  about  one  hundred  words. 

2.  Try  to  think  how  an  Indian  boy  spends  his  time,  and 
receives  his  education.  Refer  to  Hiawatha;  or  better  still,  look 
up  Indian  Boyhood,  by  Charles  Alexander  Eastman ;  or  The 
Story  of  the  Indian,  by  George  Bird  Grinnell.  Compare  the  life 
of  the  ordinary  white  child  with  that  of  the  son  of  the  red  man. 
Develop  into  a  paragraph  of  more  than  seventy-five  words. 

3.  Contrast  these  two  fish :  the  bass  and  the  pickerel.  Read 
up,  if  necessary.  Make  a  paragraph  of  not  more  than  one  hun« 
dred  and  twenty-five  words. 


Developing  a  Paragraph  333 

Developing   a  Paragraph  by  the  Use   of    Details.  —  If 

some  one  comes  to  a  group  of  students  with  a  piece  of 
interesting  news,  he  makes  a  general  statement,  only  to 
be  greeted  by  a  request  to  tell  them  all  about  it.  This 
telling  all  about  it  will  be  accomplished  by  what  is  called 
"  going  into  details."  You  develop  a  paragraph  in  about 
the  same  way.  You  bring  out  the  facts  you  desire  to  im- 
press upon  reader  or  hearer  by  the  use  of  details.  The 
paragraph  given  below  is  developed  by  this  method. 

The  years  during  which  Bacon  held  the  great  seal  were  amon^ 
the  darkest  and  most  shameful  in  English  history.  Everything 
at  home  and  abroad  was  mismanaged.  First  came  the  execu- 
tion of  Kaleigh,  an  act  which,  if  done  in  a  proper  manner 
might  have  been  defensible,  but  which  under  all  the  circum- 
stances, must  be  considered  as  a  dastardly  murder.  Worse 
was  behind  —  the  war  of  Bohemia,  the  successes  of  Tilly  and 
Spinola,  the  Palatinate  conquered,  the  king's  son-in-law  an 
exile,  the  house  of  Austria  dominant  on  the  continent,  and  the 
liberties  of  the  Germanic  body  trodden  under  foot.  In  the 
mean  time,  the  wavering  and  cowardly  policy  of  England  fur- 
nished matter  of  ridicule  to  all  the  nations  of  Europe.  The 
love  of  peace  which  James  professed  would,  even  when  in- 
dulged to  an  impolitic  excess,  have  been  respectable  if  it  had 
proceeded  from  tenderness  for  his  people.  But  the  truth  is, 
that,  while  he  had  nothing  to  spare  for  the  defence  of  the 
natural  allies  of  England,  he  resorted  without  scruple  to  the 
most  illegal  and  oppressive  devices  for  the  purpose  of  enabling 
Buckingham  and  Buckingham's  relations  to  outshine  the  ancient 
aristocracy  of  the  realm. 

—  Essay  on  Lord  Bacon,  Macaulay. 

EXERCISE   IN   DEVELOPMENT   BY   THE   USE   OF   DETAILS 

Development  by  the  Use  of  Details. — In  developing  the  following 
paragraphs,  be  careful  to  choose  the  most  interesting  details,  and  to 
observe  the  rules  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 


S34  The  Paragraph 

1.  "  I  caught  the  idea  of  Jly  casting  in  fishing  yesterday.  I 
believe  I  can  tell  you  how  to  do  it."  Read  up,  if  necessary, 
in  some  magazine  devoted  to  outdoor  life ;  or  talk  with  some 
expert  in  fishing,  until  you  think  you  understand  something  of 
what  Isaak  Walton  calls  "  the  gentle  art,"  and  develop  a  para- 
graph of  one  hundred  words  from  the  sentences  above. 

2.  "  I  learned  how  to  bake  '  beaten  biscuit '  last  Saturday. 
Do  you  want  to  hear  how  it  is  done  ?  "  Kead  up,  or  talk  it 
over  with  some  one  who  knows,  and  develop  it  into  a  paragraph 
of  suitable  lengtl\. 

3.  "  I  want  some  plants  for  my  window  this  winter.  What 
plants  thrive  best  in.  the  house,  and  what  care  do  they  require  ?  " 
Answer  this  question  by  giving  details,  developing  a  paragraph 
of  about  one  hundred  words. 

Developing  Paragraphs  by  the  Use  of  Examples.  —  Noth- 
ing clears  up  a  statement  that  is  hard  to  understand  like 
citing  a  good  example^  or  giving  specific  instance^.  This 
method  of  building  up, a  paragraph  may  easily  be  made 
effective.    The  following  paragraph  illustrates  this  method : 

But  he,  willing  to  justify  himself,  said  imto  Jesus,  And  who 
is  my  neighbor?  And  Jesus  answering  said,  A  certain  man 
went  down  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho,  and  fell  among  thieves, 
which  stripped  him  of  his  raiment,  a,nd  wounded  him,  and  de- 
parted, leaving  him  half  dead.  And  by  chance  there  came 
down  a  certain  priest  that  way;  and  when  he  saw  him,  he 
passed  by  on  the  other  side.  And  likewise  a  Levite,  when  he 
was  at  the  place,  came  and  looked  on  him,  and  passed  by  on 
the  other  side.  But  a  certain  Samaritan,  as  he  journeyed,  came 
where  he  was :  and  when  he  saw  him,  he  had  compassion  on 
him,  and  went  to  him,  and  bound  up  his  wounds,  pouring  in 
oil  and  wine,  and  set  him  on  his  own  beast,  and  brought  him 
to  an  inn,  and  took  care  of  him.  And  on  the  morrow  when  he 
departed,  he  took  out  two  pence,  and  gave  them  to  the  host, 
and  said  unto  him.  Take  care  of  him;  and  whatsoever  thou 
spendest  more,  when  I  come  again,  I  will  repay  thee.    Which 


Exercises  in  Developing  335 

now  of  these  three,  thinkest  thou,  was  neighbor  unto  him  that 
fell  among  thieves  ?  And  he  said,  He  that  showed  mercy  on 
him.     Then  said  Jesus  unto  him.  Go,  and  do  thou  likewise. 

—  LuJcex,29-S7, 

The  question,  And  who  is  my  neighbor?  is  the  topic  sen- 
tence. The  paragraph  is  developed  by  giving  a  specific 
example  of  great  beauty. 

EXERCISES  IN  DEVELOPING  BY  THE  USE  OF  EXAMPLES 

Developing  by  Use  of  Examples.  —  In  the  following  exercises  make 
your  examples  and  illustrations  as  apt  and  interesting  as  possible. 

1.  You  can  hardly  ever  ask  an  Irishman  a  question,  and  not 
get  a  witty  answer.     Illustrate  this  by  a  good  story. 

2.  A  woman's  work  is  never  done.  Use  some  specific  in- 
stance to  illustrate  this,  and  make  a  readable  paragraph. 
Think  out  or  recall  some  laughable  circumstance,  and  make  a 
striking  story  of  it. 

3.  The  life  of  a  bee  is  certainly  interesting.  Refer  to  a  good 
biology  or  to  Maeterlinck  on  The  Bee,  and  name  one  or  two 
good  examples  to  prove  what  you  say.  Develop  your  paragraph 
by  the  use  of  these  specific  instances. 

Developing  by  the  Use  of  Cause  and  Effect.  —  In  many 
cases  the  topic  sentence  states  some  eaiose.  Naturally, 
then,  the  development  of  the  paragraph  will  consist  in 
stating  the  effects  of  that  cause.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  topic  sentence  calls  attention  to  some  effect,  the  devel- 
opment must  deal  with  its  causes.  This  method  is  often 
used  with  good  effect.  The  following  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion: 

It  happened  one  day,  about  noon,  going  towards  my  boat,  1 
was  exceedingly  surprised  ivith  the  print  of  a  man's  naked  foot 
on  the  shore,  which  ivas  very  plain  to  be  seen  in  the  sand.  I 
Stood  like  one  thunderstruck,  or  as  if  I  had  seen  an  apparition. 


336  The  Paragraph 

I  listened,  I  looked  round  me,  I  could  hear  nothing,  nor  see 
anything.  I  went  up  to  a  rising  ground,  to  look  farther.  I 
went  up  the  shore,  and  down  the  shore,  but  it  was  all  one ;  I 
could  see  no  other  impression  but  that  one.  I  went  to  it  again 
to  see  if  tnere  were  any  more,  and  to  observe  if  it  might  not 
be  my  fancy.  But  there  was  no  room  for  that,  for  there  was 
exactly  the  very  print  of  a  foot,  —  toes,  heel,  and  every  part 
of  a  foot.  How  it  came  thither  I  knew  not,  nor  could  in  the 
least  imagine.  But  after  innumerable  fluttering  thoughts,  like 
a  man  perfectly  confused  and  out  of  myself,  I  got  home  to  my 
fortification,  not  feeling,  as  we  say,  the  ground  I  went  on,  but 
terrified  to  the  last  degree,  looking  behind  me  at  every  two  or 
three  steps,  mistaking  every  bush  or  tree,  and  fancying  every 
stump  at  a  distance  to  be  a  man. 

—  Robinson  Crusoe^  Defoe. 

Here,  the  topic  sentence,  in  italics,  is  the  cause.  His 
agitation  at  the  discovery  of  the  footprint  in  the  sand^  is  the 
result  produced  in  his  mind  by  this  cause. 

EXERCISE  IN   DEVELOPING   BY  THE   USE   OF   CAUSE  AND   EFFECT 

Developing  by  the  Use  of  Cause  and  Effect.  —  In  the  following  para- 
graphs, give  the  most  probable  causes  or  effects  in  an  interesting 
way. 

(1)  Expand  this  topic  sentence  by  naming  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  the  cause  it  suggests.  There  is  not  much  use  going 
fishing  just  after  the  creeh  has  run  out  on  account  of  a  very 
heavy  rain.  If  you  cannot  think  why,  ask  some  good  fisher- 
man. 

(2)  I  doubt  if  farmer  boys  are  as  good  shots  with  the  rifle  nmo 
as  they  ivere  in  the  old  days.  This  is  a  result,  but  what  are 
the  causes  ?    Develop  your  paragraph  by  stating  them. 

(3)  It  is  said  that  bees  introduced  into  tropical  countries  have 
disappointed  those  who  brought  them  there,  because  after  the  first 
season^  they  quit  storing  honey  to  any  great  extent.  If  this  state- 
ment is  true,  what  would  account  for  this  ? 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


337 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Abraham  Lincoln.  —  Tell 
the  story  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, including  a  paragraph 
on  each  of  the  following 
points.  Develop  each  para- 
graph by  one  of  the  methods 
just  treated. 

1.  His  early  opportuni- 
ties, or  seeming  lack  of  oppor- 
tunity. 

2.  His  struggle  to  pre- 
pare himself  for  usefulness. 

3.  His  public  career. 

4.  His  kindly  spirit,  as 
the  outstanding  character- 
istic. 


Independent  Para- 
graphs. —  Single    para- 
graphs are  termed  inde- 
pendent.    Editorial  comments  are  frequently  in  this  form, 
even   when    written    upon    important    topics.     What   is 
known  as  "  The  Lord's  Prayer,"  when  properly  written, 
is  in  this  form.     So  is  the  Twenty-third  Psalm. 

Lincoln' 8  Gettysburg  Address.  —  Abraham  Lincoln  de- 
livered a  speech  at  the  dedix^ation  of  the  National  Ceme^ 
tery  at  Gettysburg  which  instantaneously  affected  the 
whole  country.  This  address  has  won  favor  with  think- 
ing minds  everywhere,  as  a  perfect  example  of  English 
speech. 

It  consists  of  one  paragraph,  made  up  of  ten  sentences, 
two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  words.  The  address  em- 
bodies within  this  seemingly  limited  space,  the  intro- 
duction, careful  discussion,  and  wise  conclusion,  of  an 
important  and  fully  rounded  thought. 


Lincoln.  —  Linson. 


338  The  Paragraph 

The  Gettysburg  Address 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth 
upon  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and 
dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal. 
Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that 
nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  en- 
dure. We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We  have 
come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place 
for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live. 
It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this  ;  but  in 
a  larger  sense  we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  can- 
not hallow  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who 
struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  power  to  add 
or  detract.  The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember, 
what  we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. 
It  is  for  us  —  the  living  —  rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the 
unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so 
nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to 
the  great  task  remaining  before  us,  that  from  these  honored 
dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they 
gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion ;  that  we  here  highly 
resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain ;  that  this 
nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people, 
shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 

—  Abraham  Lincoln,  November  19,  1863. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  INDEPENDENT  PARAGRAPH 

The  Independent  Paragraph  — Develop  the  following  paragraphs 
by  any  of  the  methods  already  suggested. 

1.  Give  a  pen  picture  of  the  leader  of  a  gang  of  boys. 

2.  Describe  the  electric  flash-light  signs  on  the  public 
square  of  a  large  city.     Let  it  be  in  a  single  paragraph. 

3.  Write  a  note  of  condolence  in  one  paragraph  of  about 
one  hundred  words.     Tell  in  a  simple  way  how  you  and  your 


Paragraph  Uses  339 

classmates  have  felt  the  shock  of  the  death  of  a  friend.     Com- 
ment briefly  on  his  or  her  good  qualities. 

4.  Write  a  single  paragraph  on  any  topic  of  your  own 
choosing.     Use  less  than  one  hundred  words. 

Paragraph  Uses.  —  Paragraphs  are  named  according  to 
the  parts  they  play  in  the  make-up  of  the  composition. 
They  are  said  to  be  introductory^  concluding^  connecting^ 
transitional^  and  summarizing. 

Introductory  paragraphs  are  designed  to  forecast  the  sub- 
ject about  which  you  are  to  speak  or  write ;  to  catch  the 
attention  and  hold  it  to  that  subject ;  and  to  do  this  in  a 
straightforward  way.  Introductory  paragraphs  should  not 
be  too  long,  and  you  should  endeavor  to  put  your  own 
individuality  into  them.     The  following  is  an  example: 

As  I  walked  through  the  wilderness  of  this  world,  I  lighted 
on  a  certain  place  where  was  a  den,  and  I  laid  me  down  in 
that  place  to  sleep ;  and  as  I  slept,  I  dreamed  a  Dream.  I 
dreamed,  and  behold  I  saw  a  man  clothed  with  Rags,  standing 
in  a  certain  place,  with  his  face  from  his  own  house,  a  Book  in 
his  hand,  and  a  great  Burden  upon  his  back.  I  looked,  and 
saw  him  open  the  book,  and  read  therein ;  and  as  he  read,  he 
wept  and  trembled;  and  not  being  able  longer  to  contain, 
he  brake  out  with  a  lamentable  cry,  saying  What  shall  I 
do? 

—  The  Pilgrim^ s  Progress^  Bunyan. 

Concluding  Paragraphs.  —  Concluding  paragraphs  have 
for  their  purpose  to  leave  a  good  impression  upon  the 
mind  of  the  reader  or  hearer,  and  to  clinch  the  points 
already  made.     The  following  is  an  example : 

When  King  Midas  had  grown  quite  an  old  man,  and  used 
to  trot  Marygold's  children  on  his  knee,  he  was  fond  of  telling 
them  this  marvelous  story,  pretty  much  as  I  have  told  it  to 
you.     And  then  he  would  stroke  their  glossy  ringlets,  and  tell 


340  The  Paragraph 

them  that  their  hair,  likewise,  had  a  rich  shade  of  gold,  which 
they  had  inherited  from  their  mother. 

"  And  to  tell  you  the  truth,  my  precious  little  folks,"  quoth 
King  Midas,  diligently  trotting  the  children  all  the  while, 
"  ever  since  that  morning,  I  have  hated  the  very  sight  of  all 
other  gold,  save  this  ! " 

—  The  Golden  Touch,  Hawthorne. 

Connecting  Paragraphs.  —  In  the  careful  discussion  of 
a  question,  it  is  often  necessary  to  use  a  paragraph  as  a 
connecting  link  between  what  has  gone  before,  and  some 
new  phase  of  the  thought.  This  rests  the  mind,  and  pre- 
pares it  for  the  new  line  of  thought.  The  following  is  an 
example : 

Nevertheless,  the  court  has  not  always  had  smooth  seas  to 
navigate.  It  has  more  than  once  been  shaken  by  blasts  of  un- 
popularity. It  has  not  infrequently  found  itself  in  conflict 
with  other  authorities. 

—  The  American  Commonwealth,  chap,  xxiv,  Bryce. 

Transitional  Paragraphs.  —  Where  the  line  of  thought 
veers  from  one  part  of  a  discussion  or  story  to  another, 
the  change  is  often  indicated  by  the  use  of  the  transitional 
paragraph.     The  following  is  an  example  : 

Let  us  pass  on  to  consider  the  circumstances  which  work 
for  uniformity  among  the  States,  and  work  more  powerfully 
as  time  goes  on. 

—  The  American  Commonwealth,  chap,  xxxvi,  Bryce. 

Summarizing  Paragraphs.  —  It  is  often  necessary,  espe- 
cially in  important  discussions,  to  restate  in  one  paragraph 
the  substance  of  what  has  gone  before,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  clear  view  of  the  subject,  and  be  able  to  grasp  the 
thought  that  is  to  follow.  This  is  called  the  summarizing 
paragraph.     The  following  is  an  example : 


The  Summarizing  Paragraph  341 

Let  us  hear  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter.  Fear  God, 
and  keep  his  commandments,  for  this  is  the  whole  duty  of  man. 
For  God  shall  bring  every  work  into  judgment,  with  every 
secret  thing,  whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it  be  evil. 

—  Ecclesiastes,  xii,  13,  14. 

The  Summarizing  Paragraph  in  Newspaper  Usage.  —  As 
previously  stated,  newspaper  usage  reverses  the  position  of 
the  summarizing  paragraph.  News  writers  place  it  first, 
instead  of  last.  By  this  means  it  catches  attention,  and 
gives  the  reader  the  news  at  a  glance.  If  he  wishes  further 
detail,  he  reads  on.  If  not,  he  already  has  the  substance 
of  the  news. 

Bring  to  the  class  some  good  examples  of  the  newspaper 
use  of  the  summarizing  paragraph.  You  will  find  it  where 
some  item  of  striking  interest  is  given,  as  for  instance 
in  the  account  of  a  railroad  wreck,  or  the  sinking  of  a  ship, 
or  the  description  of  a  game  of  baseball  in  the  World's 
Series,  or  of  some  big  football  event. 

Means  of  Connection  in  Paragraphs.  —  There  are  various 
means  of  showing  the  relation  between  paragraphs,  among 
which  the  following  are  most  important : 

1.  The  best  possible  means  of  connection  in  paragraphs  is 
the  logical  connection,  which  supplies  a  bond  of  union  in  the 
article  that  holds  it  well  together. 

2.  The  use  of  connecting  and  transitional  paragraphs  is  an 
excellent  means  of  connection. 

3.  Transitional  sentences,  clauses,  and  phrases  also  offer 
means  of  paragraph  connection. 

4.  What  is  called  the  echo,  that  is,  a  definite  reference  in 
one  paragraph  to  what  has  been  said  in  a  preceding  paragraph, 
serves  to  bind  paragraphs  together. 

5.  'The  use  of  connecting  words  serves  to  indicate  the  relation 
between  paragraphs. 


342  The  Paragraph 

EXERCISES  ON  MEANS  OF  CONNECTION  IN  PARAGRAPHS 

(a)  Study  the  article  from  The  Outlook  given  below,  using  the 
italicized  words  as  your  theme.  Look  up  additional  instances  of  how 
seemingly,  " the  God  that  presides  over  the  destinies  of  nations" 
intervenes  in  the  history  of  our  country.  Take  for  instance  the 
reported  changing  of  the  course  of  his  ship  toward  the  south,  which 
led  Columbus  to  South  America  instead  of  to  North  America. 

Military  history  is  full  of  illustrations  of  the  fact  quaintly 
expressed  by  the  ancient  Hebrew  historian  in  the  saying,  "  The 
stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera.''  It  was  J;he  in- 
coming of  the  sea  which  cooperated  with  William  of  Orange 
to  save  the  Netherlands  from  Alva's  army.  The  Spanish 
Armada  was  bravely  and  wisely  fought  by  Drake  and  Hawkins  ; 
but  says  the  historian  Green,  "  The  work  of  destruction  was 
reserved  for  a  mightier  foe  than  Drake."  The  storm  com- 
pleted what  he  had  begun  but  could  not  have  completed  with- 
out its  aid. 

After  the  battle  of  Long  Island  the  capture  of  General 
Washington  and  his  entire  army  was  imminent.  An  "  unex- 
ampled fog"  came  out  of  the  sea  to  hide  the  American  army 
and  prevent  the  advance  of  the  British  fleet,  and  lay  between 
the  two  until  the  last  detachment  of  the  retreating  army  had 
made  its  escape.  .  .  .  W"e  do  not  undertake  to  interpret  the 
will  or  the  purpose  of  the  Almighty.  But  we  believe,  with 
Hegel,  that  God  has  a  plan  and  that  history  is  nothing  but  the 
working  out  of  his  plan  in  human  affairs. 

—  The  Outlook. 

(b)  Prepare  an  outline  consisting  of  several  paragraphs,  using  the 
card  plan  for  its  arrangement,  with  any  title  you  choose.  Let  the 
general  statement  you  are  trying  to  illustrate  be  the  basis  of  your  in- 
troductory paragraph.  Use  two  or  more  instances,  each  as  the  sug- 
gestion for  a  separate  paragraph.  Let  at  least  one  of  the  paragraphs 
take  the  form  of  a  transitional  paragraph.  Make  your  last  paragraph 
a  definite  example  of  the  concluding  paragraph.     Write  the  paper. 

(c)  Prepare  an  independent  paragraph,  using  the  suggestions  above 
given  as  to  the  matter  of  the  paragraph.  Give  attention  to  the 
laeans  of  connection  within  the  paragraph. 


Exercises  on  Paragraphs  343 

(d)  The  Use  of  Connectives.  —  In  the  following  exercises  study 
carefully  the  use  of  connectives. 

1.  Refer  to  Tennyson's  "  Home  They  Brought  Her  Warrior 
Dead,"  and  tell  the  story  simply  in  one  or  two  paragraphs, 
using  your  own  words  and  your  own  style.  Use  as  many  con- 
nectives as  may  be  necessary. 

2.  Kefer  to  Three  Men  in  a  Boat,  by  Jerome,  chapter  ix, 
beginning  with  the  paragraph,  "  Of  all  experiences  in  connec- 
tion with  towing,  the  most  exciting  is  being  towed  by  girls." 
Read  it,  get  the  story,  and  tell  it.  Use  as  many  conjunctive 
adverbs  as  may  be  necessary. 

(e)  Refer  to  7%e  Cotter's  Saturday  Night  and  describe  the  scene 
where  the  father  reads  the  Scriptures.  Put  it  into  three  paragraphs. 
Let  the  introductory  paragraph  say  something  about  the  poem.  In  your 
second  and  third  paragraphs,  tell  the  story.  Watch  your  use  of  con- 
nectives. Use  as  many  relative  pronouns  and  as  few  other  connec- 
tives as  possible.     Prepare  an  outline  and  work  by  it. 

{f)  Review  of  the  Paragraph.  —  Let  a  committee  of  three  be  ap- 
pointed to  conduct  a  careful  review  of  all  the  points  brought  out  in  the 
study  of  the  paragraph.  Let  one  member  be  named  by  the  teacher; 
one  by  the  class ;  and  the  third  be  selected  by  the  two  members  al- 
ready chosen. 

The  committee  is  to  divide  the  work  as  follows : 

1.  One  member  is  to  question  the  dass,  taking  care  to  insist 
on  the  essentials  of  the  paragraph,^  requiring  both  definition 
and  example.  It  might  be  well  to  have  three  or  four  good 
books  on  hand,  out  of  whicb  the  members  of  the  class  are  to 
select  examples  of  the  different  kinds  and  uses  of  the  para- 
graphs. One  of  Stevenson's  essays,  one  of  Carlyle's,  Dana's 
Two  Years  Before  the  Mast,  a  copy  of  Bryce's  Amencan  Com- 
monwealth, one  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  Burke's  Speech  on 
Conciliation  would  all  be  useful  for  the  purpose  named. 

2.  A  second  member  is  to  act  as  judge  in  all  disputed  points. 


1  In  general,  it  is  advisable  that  no  pupil  who  shows  inability  to  con- 
struct a  fairly  good  para^jraph  should  be  promoted  from  the  second  to  the 
third  year.  —  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


344  The  Paragraph 

He  shall  have  the  right  to  consult  with  the  instructor.  The 
decision  of  the  judge  is  to  be  final.  However,  any  member  of 
the  class  may  appeal,  without  debate,  to  the  class.  In  such 
case,  the  chairman  is  to  present  the  appeal  which  is  to  be 
handed  in  in  writing  by  the  student  desiring  to  appeal.  It 
might  be  well  to  insist  on  a  two  thirds  majority  to  sustain  the 
appeal. 

3.  The  chairman  of  the  committee  is  to  be  elected  by  the 
committee.  In  addition  to  presiding  over  the  work  of  the  re- 
view, it  is  suggested  that  he  make  a  summary  of  the  revietOy  in 
a  ten  minutes'  talk. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

All  Hands  to  the  Pumps  I  —  Henry  Scott  Tuke,  the  artist, 
shows  a  ship  in  distress.  Amidst  the  fury  of  the  elements, 
safety  lies  in  obedience  to  command,  and  this  shows  here. 
Let  us  hope  they  will  weather  the  storm. 

Study  the  picture,  and  tell  its  story  as  you  see  it,  and  as  if  you 
were  a  member  of  the  crew. 

Every  Man  a  Hero.  —  No  nobler  deed  happens  than  where,  after 
all  is  done  that  can  be  done,  it  becomes  apparent  that  all  must  go 
down  with  the  ship.  The  seamen  line  up  in  perfect  order,  and  await 
the  plunge.  Refer  again  to  the  account  of  the  sinking  of  the  Titanic 
for  a  scene  of  courage  and  manliness  in  the  face  of  death, 

EXERCISE  IN  BRINGING  IN  A  REPORT 

Bringing  in  a  Report.  —  Master  one  or  more  items  suggested  here- 
with, and  make  a  report  on  it. 

1.  The  Paragraph. — Take  time  to  master  the  important 
matter  of  paragraphing.  Think  it  out,  and  make  an  outline 
that  shall  cover  the  entire  subject.  Then  ivrite  out  a  report  on 
paragraphing  J  embodying  everything  that  you  think  belongs  in 
it.  Use  your  own  ideas,  as  well  as  getting  whatever  sugges- 
tions the  public  library  affords.  Do  not  limit  yourself  too 
narrowly,  but  write  at  some  length. 

2.  Modem  Warfare.  —  Read,  think,  and  write  a  report  upon 
the  topic,  Modern  Warfare.    Note  the  changes  in  the  method 


Exercise  in  Bringing  in  a  Report         345 


All  Hands  to  the  Pumps! 


of  fighting,  and  the  probable  effect  of  this  new  method  of  fight- 
ing upon  (a)  the  belligerents  ;  (6)  the  people  at  home  ;  (c)  the 
world  at  large ;  (d)  the  coming  generation ;  (e)  the  danger  of 
future  wars.     Take  time  in  looking  up  your  facts,  and  give 


346  The  Paragraph 

yourself  a  sufficient  number  of  words  to  enable  you  to  do  your 
subject  justice. 

3.  Your  Own  Interests}  —  Give  a  report  on  whatever  interests 
you  most.  Your  vocational  interests ;  your  hobby ;  your  in- 
vestments, if  you  have  begun  to  invest ;  your  plans  for  an  ex- 
tended vacation  trip ;  if  you  are  a  fisherman,  a  report  on  fishing 
conditions  within  your  knowledge.  ,^ 

4.  Report  on  Trapping,  and  Selling  JF^^rs.  —  Quite  a  number 
of  high  school  boys  trap  fur-bearing  animals  and  add  to  their 
income  by  preparing  and  selling  furs.  If  you  are  interested, 
prepare  a  report  on  this  subject. 

5.  Report  on  Hovo  Girls  May  Be  Self-supporting.  —  If  you 
are  interested  in  this  subject,  study  up  on  it,  and  report.  Make 
it  worth  reading.  Make  it  clear,  and  make  it  logical.  Use  as 
many  words  as  you  need. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  picture  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the  central  court  of 
one  of  the  houses  in  Pompeii.  In  the  distance  may  be  seen 
the  volcano  Vesuvius,  which  was  responsible  for  the  ruin  of  this 
ancient  city.  As  the  ashes  from  the  eruption  sifted  down  upon 
the  town,  they  preserved  houses,  utensils,  jewelry,  and  even 
paintings,  so  that  to-day  we  can  tell  with  no  small  degree  of 
accuracy  of  the  life  and  tastes  of  the  ancient  Pompeians. 

1.  Look  up  in  your  Ancient  History  or  in  the  encyclopedia  some 
interesting  facts  about  Pompeii  and  bring  in  a  report  to  be  read  to  the 
class. 

2.  If  you  have  read  Bulwer's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  retell  what  ap- 
pealed to  you  as  the  most  interesting  incident  in  the  book. 


1  The  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  quotes  with 
approval  this  statement  from  the  Beport  of  the  Committee  on  English, 
N.  E.  A.  Commission  on  Reorganization  of  High  Schools.  ''Expression 
in  writing  includes  ability,  with  due  time  for  study  and  preparation,  to 
plan  and  work  out  a  clear,  well-ordered  and  interesting  report  of  some 
length  upon  one''s  fecial  interests  —  literary,  scientific,  commercial  or 
what  not.'* 


Exercise  in  Paragraph  Survey 


347 


The  Central  Court  of  a  House  in  Pompeii. 


EXERCISE  IN  PARAGRAPH  SURVEY 
Round  Table  Survey.^  —  What  is  the  status  of  the  English  class  at 
this  time  as  to  its  habits  in  speaking  and  writing?     Let  a  survey  or 
inquiry  with  this  question  in  mind  be  now  made. 

How  to  Conduct  the  Round  Table.  —  The  instructor  in  English  will 
appoint  a  chairman  and  name  the  closing  speaker,  unless  he  chooses 
to  sum  up  the  findings  himself.  He  will  name  ten  speakers,  one  for 
each  item  given  below.  These  are  to  have  two  minutes  each  in  which 
to  report.    Let  a  week  elapse,  in  order  to  afford  time  for  investigation. 

Points  in  the  Inquiry.  — Each  of  the  ten  speakers  will  report 
on  one  of  the  items  here  suggested. 

1.  Do  the  manuscripts  presented  by  this  class  in  their  daily 
exercises  come  up  to  a  high  standard?  What  faults  are  ob- 
served ? 

2.  Are  the  habits  in  speech  and  recitation  in  this  class  what 
they  should  be  ?  Does  each  student  speak  clearly,  and  answer 
definitely  ? 

1  Suggested  by  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  Tork 


348  The   Paragraph 

3.  Do  we  get  accurate  information  before  we  attempt  ex- 
pression ? 

4.  Does  the  ipaking  of  effective  topical  outlines,  and  recita- 
tions from  them,  characterize  the  majority  of  our  recitations  ? 

5.  Is  each  paragraph  the  result  of  the  effective  develop- 
ment of  one  topic,  and  but  one  ? 

6.  What  is  our  status  as  to  the  proper  use  of  topic  sen- 
tences, summaries,  and  transitions  ? 

7.  As  a  rule,  do  we  use  short,  unified  sentences  ? 

8.  How  about  careful  connection  between  matter  and  form  ? 
Do  we  clothe  our  thoughts,  spoken  or  written,  in  appropriate 
form  ?  Do  our  business,  friendly,  and  social  letters  meet  up- 
to-date  requirements  as  to  form  and  appropriateness  ? 

9.  Do  we,  in  class  and  out  of  class,  habitually  use  good 
English  ? 

10.  Do  we  look  up  the  principles  of  writing  in  our  text-book 
and  books  of  reference  when  those  principles  become  hazy  or 
require  new  applications  ? 


PART   FIVE 
WHAT   MAKES   ENGLISH   EFFECTIVE 

CHAPTER   XXV 
STYLE 


I  love  a  plain  and  natural  style,  'written  or  spoken ;  a  strong, 
expressive  style,  curt  and  compact;  not  so  much  nice  and  faultless, 
as  animated  and  direct.  — Montaigne. 


Style  Defined.  —  Sti/le  is  the  manner  in  which  thought 
is  expressed.  The  word  takes  its  meaning  from  the  in- 
strument used  by  the  ancients  in  writing  upon  tablets 
covered  with  wax.  A  writer  of  ability  soon  comes  to  pos- 
sess what  we  call  his  style.  He  gains  an  individuality 
in  expression  through  which  he  may  be  known  by  those 
familiar  with  his  work,  even  in  fragments  of  his  writing. 
His  style  is  an  essential  part  of  him  and  of  his  work. 

George  Henry  Lewes  in  his  Life  of  Goethe  says :  "  There 
is  not  the  slightest  difference  in  meaning  expressed  when 
I  say,  '  The  dews  of  night  began  to  fall,'  or  '  The  nightl}' 
dews  commenced  to  fall.'  Meaning  and  metre  are  the 
same;  but  one  is  poetry,  the  other  prose.  Wordsworth 
paints  a  landscape  in  this  line, 

The  river  wanders  at  its  own  sweet  wiU. 

Let  us  translate  it  into  other  words,  '  The  river  runneth 
free  from  all  restraint.'     We  preserve  the  meaning,  but 

349 


350  Style 

where  is  the  landscape  ?  "  Yes,  and  we  may  add,  where 
is  Wordsworth?  In  the  change  of  expression,  Wordsworth 
vanishes  with  the  landscape.  Wordsworth's  style  is  as 
much  a  part  of  Wordsworth  as  is  the  well-remembered 
smile  of  a  friend  a  part  and  an  essential  part  of  that  friend. 
Note  the  following  example.  The  truth  it  sets  forth  is 
so  well  put  that  it  will  probably  never  be  better  stated. 
It  is  the  author's  style  that  distinguishes  it. 

Precept  is  instruction  written  in  the  sand.  The  tide  flows 
over  it,  and  the  record  is  gone.  Example  is  engraved  upon 
the  rock. 

—  William  Ellery  Channing. 

Style  in  Prose.  —  The  examples  which  follow,  all  from 
masters  of  English,  illustrate  the  marked  differences  in 
English  prose.  As  you  read  you  feel  that  it  would  be 
hard  to  give  the  thought  more  fitting  expression.  No  two 
are  alike,  while  all  indicate  excellence  of  style. 

A  tart  temper  never  mellows  with  age,  and  a  sharp  tongue  is 
the  only  edged  tool  that  grows  keener  with  constant  use. 

—  Washington  Irving. 

When  bad  men  combine,  the  good  must  associate ;  else  they 
will  fall,  one  by  one,  an  unpitied  sacrifice  in  a  contemptible 
struggle. 

—  Edmund  Burke. 

What  I  mainly  dislike  in  the  New  Philosophy  is  the  cool 
impertinence  with  which  an  old  idea  folded  in  a  new  garment 
looks  you  in  the  face  and  pretends  not  to  know  you,  though 
you  have  been  familiar  friends  from  childhood. 

—  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow. 

It  is  strange  what  humble  offices  may  be  performed  in  a 
beautiful  scene  without  destroying  its  poetry.  Our  fire,  red 
gleaming  among  tHe  trees,  and  we  beside  it,  busied  with  culi- 


Style  in  Prose  351 

nary  rites  and  spreading  out  our  meal  on  a  mossgrown  log,  all 
seemed  in  unison  with  the  river  gliding  by  and  the  foliage 
rustling  over  us. 

—  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

When  the  mariner  has  been  tossed  for  many  days,  in  thick 
weather,  and  on  an  unknown  sea,  he  naturally  avails  himself 
of  the  first  pause  in  the  storm,  the  earliest  glance  of  the  sun, 
to  take  his  latitude,  and  ascertain  how  far  the  elements  have 
driven  him  from  his  true  course.  Let  us  imitate  this  prudence, 
and  before  we  float  further  on  the  waves  of  this  debate,  refer 
to  the  point  from  which  we  departed^  that  we  may  at  least  bfe 
able  to  conjecture  where  we  now  are.  I  ask  for  the  reading 
of  the  resolution  before  the  Senate. 

—  Daniel  Webster. 

All  this  while,  Alan  had  not  said  a  word,  and  had  run  and 
climbed  with  such  a  savage,  silent  frenzy  of  hurry,  that  I  knew 
he  was  in  mortal  fear  of  some  miscarriage.  Even  now  we  were 
on  the  rock  he  said  nothing,  nor  so  much  as  relaxed  the  frown- 
ing look  upon  his  face ;  but  clapped  flat  down,  and  keeping  only 
one  eye  above  the  edge  of  our  place  of  shelter,  scouted  all 
round  the  compass.  The  dawn  had  come  quite  clear  ;  we  could 
see  the  stony  sides  of  the  valley,  and  its  bottom,  which  was 
bestrewed  with  rocks,  and  the  river,  which  went  from  one  side 
to  another,  and  made  white  falls  ;  but  nowhere  the  smoke  of  a 
house,  nor  any  living  creature  but  some  eagles  screaming  round 
a  cliff. 

Then  at  last  Alan  smiled. 

"  Ay,"  said  he,  "  now  we  have  a  chance." 

—  Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

The  twenty-third  Psalm  is  the  nightingale  of  psalms.  It  is 
small,  of  homely  feather,  singing  shyly  out  of  obscurity ;  but 
0,  it  has  filled  the  air  of  the  whole  world  with  melodious  joy 
greater  than  the  heart  can  conceive. 

Blessed  be  the  day  on  which  that  Psalm  was  born.     What 


352  Style 

would  you  say  of  a  pilgrim  commissioned  by  God  to  travel  up 
and  down  the  earth,  singing  a  strange  melody  which,  when 
one  had  heard,  caused  him  to  forget  whatever  sorrow  he  had  ? 
Behold  such  a  one ;  this  pilgrim  God  has  sent  to  speak  in  every 
language  on  the  globe.  It  has  charmed  more  grief  to  rest  than 
all  the  philosophy  of  the  world  ;  it  has  remanded  to  their  dun- 
geon more  felon  thoughts,  more  black  doubts,  more  thieving 
sorrows  than  there  are  sands  on  the  seashore ;  it  has  comforted 
the  noble  host  of  the  poor ;  it  has  sung  courage  to  the  army  of 
the  disappointed ;  it  has  poured  balm  and  consolation  into  the 
hearts  of  the  sick,  of  captives  in  dungeons,  of  widows  in  their 
pinching  griefs,  of  orphans  in  their  loneliness.  Nor  is  its  work 
done.  It  will  go  on  singing  to  your  children  and  my  children 
through  all  the  generations  of  time. 

—  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

The  Puritans  were  men  whose  minds  had  derived  a  peculiar 
character  from  the  daily  contemplation  of  superior  beings  and 
eternal  interests.  Not  content  with  acknowledging,  in  general 
terms,  an  overruling  Providence,  they  habitually  ascribed  every 
event  to  the  will  of  the  Great  Being,  for  whose  power  nothing 
was  too  vast,  for  whose  inspection  nothing  was  too  minute. 
To  know  him,  to  serve  him,  to  enjoy  him,  was  with  them  the 
great  end  of  existence.  They  rejected  with  contempt  the  cere- 
monious homage  which  other  sects  substituted  for  the  pure 
worship  of  the  squl.  Instead  of  catching  occasional  glimpses 
of  the  Deity  through  an  obscuring  veil,  they  aspired  to  gaze 
full  on  his  intolerable  brightness,  and  to  commune  with  him 
face  to  face.  Hence  originated  their  contempt  for  terrestrial 
distinctions.  The  difference  between  the  greatest  and  the 
meanest  of  mankind  seemed  to  vanish,  when  compared  with 
the  boundless  interval  which  separated  the  whole  race  from 
him  on  whom  their  own  eyes  were  constantly  fixed.  They 
recognized  no  title  to  superiority  but  his  favor ;  and,  confident 
of  that  favor,  they  despised  all  the  accomplishments  and  all 
the  dignities  of  the  world. 

—  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


353 


Manistique  Creek,  Michigan,  in  a  Fine  Fishing  Country. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Manistique  Creek.  —  This  view  of  a  little  fishing  stream  in 
Michigan  is  taken  from  the  scrapbook  of  a  student  who  spent 
two  weeks  in  camp  there.  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  fishing 
country. 

Imagine  yourself  out  in  a  motorboat,  exploring  for  a  site  for  your 
fishing  camp,  and  tell  about  it. 

Planning  Your  Camp.  —  Plan  a  fishing  camp  for  a  group  of  high 
school  girls  and  two  or  three  teachers ;  or  for  a  party  of  boys,  with 
one  of  their  teachers  along.  Get  accurate  information  as  to  how  a 
camp  should  be  conducted,  and  prepare  a  talk  on  the  topic.  Include 
tents,  cooking  equipment,  dining  tent,  boats,  fishing  outfits  for  the 
individual  and  for  the  party,  proper  clothing,  raincoats,  or  ponchos. 
Also  study  the  larder,  providing  a  reasonable  outfit  including  gro- 
ceries, ice,  fruits,  and  items  of  staple  food.  Study  the  water  supply, 
camp  hygiene,  and  everything  necessary  for  the  camp.  Do  not  for- 
get to  study  what  offers  in  the  way  of  amusements  for  the  camp. 
Write  your  plan,  trying  to  put  individuality  into  it. 


354  Style 

Marked  Differences  in  Style.  —  From  the  examples  cited 
it  is  plain  that  there  are  marked  differences  in  style.  The 
practical  question  for  the  beginner  in  writing  is,  wherein 
do  styles  differ?  What  is  the  best  style;  and  what,  espe- 
cially, is  the  best  style  for  me?  Is  it  in  my  power,  grant- 
ing that  I  am  eager  for  it,  to  acquire  an  excellent  style? 
And  how  shall  I  go  to  work  with  this  end  in  view?' 

From  one  point  of  view,  and  in  an  important  sense. 
Dean  Swift's  statement  that  proper  words  in  proper  places 
make  the  true  definition  of  style,  is  true.  But  the  study 
of  style  includes  also  the  study  of  sentences,  and  of  para- 
graphs, and  of  what  are  called  figures. 

Note  the  following  definitions  of  style.  Hill  emphasizes 
important  elements  in  style,  while  Spencer  gives  a  more 
complete  statement  of  what  style  includes. 

Differ  as  good  writers  may  in  other  respects,  they  are  all 
distinguished  by  the  judicious  choice  and  skilful  placing  of 
words.  They  all  aim  to  use  no  word  that  is  not  established  as 
a  part  of  the  language  in,  the  sense  in  which  they  use  it,  and 
no  word  that  does  not  say  what  they  wish  it  to  say  so  clearly 
as  to  be  understood  at  once,  and  either  so  strongly  as  to  com- 
mand attention  or  so  agreeably  as  to  win  attention;  to  put 
every  word  in  the  place  fixed  for  it  by  the  idiom  of  the  language, 
and  by  the  principles  which  'govern  communication  between 
man  and  man,  —  the  place  which  gives  the  word  its  exact 
value  in  itself  and  in  its  relation  with  other  words  ;  and  to  use 
no  more  words  than  are  necessary  to  effect  the  purpose  in  hand. 

—  A.  S.Hill. 

The  right  choice  and  collocation  of  words ;  the  best  arrange- 
ment of  clauses  in  a  sentence  ;  the  proper  order  of  its  principal 
and  subordinate  propositions  j  the  judicious  use  of  simile, 
metaphor,  and  other  figures  of  speech;  and  the  euphonious 
sequence  of  syllables. 

—  Herbert  Spencer. 


Mannerisms  355 

A  remarkable  example  of  the  difference  that  style  makes, 
where  two  writers  say  substantially  the  same  thing,  one 
simple  and  matter-of-fact,  the  other  on  fire  with  genius, 
is  found  in  the  following  extract  from  a  letter  written  by 
the  sister  of  the  poet,  William  Wordsworth,  whose  poem 
on  "  The  Daffodils  "  is  quoted  on  page  391  of  this  book. 
Let  the  student  compare  them. 

When  we  were  in  the  woods,  we  saw  a  few  daffodils  close  by 
the  water-side.  As  we  went  along  there  were  more  and  yet 
more ;  and  at  last,  mider  the  boughs  of  the  trees,  we  saw  there 
a  long  belt  of  them  along  the  shore.  I  never  saw  daffodils  so 
beautiful.  They  grew  among  the  mossy  stones  about  them. 
Some  rested  their  heads  on  the  stones  as  on  a  pillow ;  the  rest 
tossed,  and  reeled,  and  danced,  and  seemed  as  if  they  verily 
laughed  with  the  wind,  they  looked  so  gay  and  glancing. 

Mannerisms.  —  The  young  writer  must  guard  against 
what  are  called  mannerisms.  In  his  anxiety  to  preserve 
and  cultivate  originality,  he  is  apt  to  fall  into  peculiar 
ways  of  expressing  himself.  A  safe  rule,  although  not 
an  easy  one  to  follow,  is  rigorously  to  cut  out  the  passages 
that  he  has  fallen  in  love  with.  If  a  sentence  or  a  para- 
graph pleases  him  unduly,  the  chances  are  that  it  contains 
some  mannerisms  which  would  be  better  omitted. 

There  is  little  hope  for  a  young  writer  who  thinks  he 
has  a  style,  and  clings  to  it  in  spite  of  sound  criticism  on 
the  part  of  an  experienced  writer.  This  does  not  mean 
that  individuality  of  style  is  not  to  be  sought,  but  rather 
that  there  is  danger  of  the  student's  becoming  satisfied 
with  his  own  crude  and  faulty  style,  because  it  seems  to 
be  his  own.  If  he  persists  in  it,  it  may  spoil  his  success 
as  a  writer. 

Here  is  where  young  newspaper  writers  have  an  advan- 
tage.    The  editor's  blue  pencil  is  inexorable,  and  cuts  out 


356  Style 

what  they  may  think  is  their  best  work.    But  if  they  have 
anything  in  them,  they  will  thank  him  for  it  later. 

Suggestions  for  Acquiring  a  Style.  —  If  you  are  in  ear- 
nest as  to  acquiring  a  style,  note  these  suggestions. 

1.  Never  lose  sight  of  your  style  until  it  becomes  part 
of  yourself. 

2.  Study  the  masters  of  style. 

3.  Do  not  be  self-conscious,  but  hold  yourself  well  in 
hand. 

4.  Avoid  mannerisms. 

To  give  the  phrase,  the  sentence,  the  structural  member, 
the  entire  composition,  a  similar  unity  with  its  subject  and 
with  itself,  —  style  is  in  the  right  way  when  it  tends  towards 
that.  —  On  Style,  Walter  Pater. 

EXERCISES  ON   STYLE 

(a)  Having  Regard  to  Style.  —  In  preparing  these  exercises,  have 
regard  to  style.  Write  the  papers  first,  the  best  you  can,  and  then 
go  over  them,  endeavoring  to  improve  the  style. 

1.  Write  a  two-hundred-word  paper  on  the  style  of  Silas 
Marner,  stating  how  you  think  this  style  differs  from  that  of 
Carlyle  in  his  Life  of  Burns;  or  from  that  of  Dickens  in  his 
Tale  of  Two  Cities.  Or,  you  may  use  any  other  book  you  have 
studied  in  class,  for  this  comparison  with  Silas  Marner. 

2.  Write  a  one-hundred-word  paper  on  the  style  of  some 
favorite  book  or  poem  ;  or  of  some  author. 

(&)  Studying  Your  Own  Style.  —  It  is  well  worth  while  to  keep  an  eye 
on  your  own  style,  both  in  speech  and  writing.  There  is  a  distinctive 
style  of  speech  that  belongs  to  you,  if  you  value  it  enough  to  strive 
after  it.    In  making  this  effort,  do  two  things : 

1.  Do  your  best  in  every  paper  you  write,  and  in  every 
talk  or  speech  you  attempt. 

2.  In  writing,  read  your  work  over,  after  you  have  done 
the  best  that  is  in  you,  in  order  to  detect  errors,  and  to  make 
your  work  as  good  as  your  sober  second  thought  may  suggest. 


Exercises  on  Style  357 

Read  for  one  thing  at  a  time.^  Study  your  sentence  structure  at 
one  reading.  Examine  your  paragraphing  at  another  reading.  Watch 
for  errors  in  grammar  at  another  time.  As  you  do  all  this,  however, 
study  the  matter  of  your  own  style. 

Take  the  best  paper  you  have  written  recently^  and  rewrite  itf  endeavor- 
ing to  put  into  practice  the  suggestions  just  made. 


1  This  method  of  close  inquiry  into  the  merits  of  your  own  work  is 
strongly  urged  by  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 
It  states  that  in  so  doing,  the  student  soon  becomes  the  best  critic  of  his 
own  written  and  oral  work,  and  acquires  a  habit  that  will  be  useful  to 
him  all  his  later  life. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 
REQUISITES  OF  EFFECTIVE  STYLE 


We  are  pleased  with  an  author  who  frees  us  from  all  fatigue  in 
searching  for  his  meaning.  — Blair. 


Essential  Properties  of  Effective  Style.  —  Effective  prose 
must  have  some  special  properties  of  style.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  clearness,  force,  and  elegance. 

Clearness.  —  Clearness  requires  that  what  is  written 
shall  be  so  expressed  that  it  must  be  understood  by  the 
reader  or  hearer.  Referring  to  this  quality  of  clearness, 
Quintilian  says :  "  It  is  not  enough  to  use  language  that 
mat/  be  understood ;  the  writer  should  use  language  that 
must  be  understood." 

Clearness  of  Thought.  —  There  are  many  elements  that 
enter  into  clearness  of  expression,  but  the  first  essential  is 
clearness  of  thought.  To  be  clear,  we  must  think  a  thing 
out  until  the  words  we  use  mean  just  what  we  intend 
them  to  mean. 

To  write  with  clearness  we  must  make  ourselves  as  certain 
as  possible  of  what  we  wish  to  say. 

—-Wendell. 

Clearness  of  Expression.  —  The  writer  must  take  pains 
with  what  is  written.  If  he  undertakes  to  write  so  that 
no  one  can  possibly  misunderstand  him,  it  soon  comes  to 
be  a  sort  of  second  nature  with  him. 

No  man  better  understood  the  value  of  clear  English 

368 


Clearness  of  Expression  359 

speech  than  did  Abraham  Lincoln.  "  His  simple,  lumi- 
nous sentences,  which  go  straight  as  bullets,"  says  an 
editorial  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post,  "  are  models  that 
cannot  be  improved  upon.  To  follow  Lincoln's  mind 
through  his  great  controversies  is  an  education  in  reason- 
ing." On  one  occasion  he  was  interviewed  by  a  representa- 
tive of  the  New  York  Independent  as  to  the  secret  of 
his  style. 

Calling  Mr.  Lincoln's  attention  to  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  great  teachers  of  rhetoric  were  using  his  speeches  as 
models,  the  reporter  asked  him  where  he  got  his  unusual 
power  of  putting  things. 

This  is  his  reply  : 

I  have  been  putting  the  question  you  ask  me  to  myself  while 
you  have  been  talking.  I  say  this,  that  among  my  earliest 
recollections,  I  remember  how  when  a  mere  child,  I  used  to 
get  irritated  when  anybody  talked  to  me  in  a  way  I  could  not 
understand.  I  don't  think  I  ever  got  angry  at  anything  else 
in  my  life.  But  that  always  disturbed  my  temper,  and  has 
ever  since. 

I  can  remember  going  to  my  little  bedroom,  after  hearing 
the  neighbors  talk  of  an  evening  with  my  father,  and  spending 
no  small  part  of  the  night  walking  up  and  down,  and  trying 
to  make  out  what  was  the  meaning  of  their,  to  me,  dark  say- 
ings. I  could  not  sleep,  though  I  often  tried  to,  when  I  got 
on  such  a  hunt  after  an  idea,  until  I  had  caught  it ;  and  when 
I  thought  I  had  got  it,  I  was  not  satisfied  until  I  had  repeated 
it  over  and  over,  until  I  had  put  it  in  language  plain  enough, 
as  I  thought,  for  any  boy  I  knew  to  comprehend. 

This  was  a  kind  of  passion  with  me,  and  it  has  stuck  by  me, 
for  I  am  never  easy  now,  when  I  am  handling  a  thought,  till  I 
have  bounded  it  north  and  bounded  it  south  and  bounded  it 
east  and  bounded  it  west.  Perhaps  that  accounts  for  the  char- 
acteristic you  observe  in  my  speeches,  though  I  never  put  the 
two  things  together  before. 


860 


EflFective  Style 


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Photograph  by  Frank  C.  Sage. 


Football  Strategy. 
Using  the  head  in  battle. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Football  Strategy.  —  Football  is  not  always  won  by  steer 
weight.  Often  strategy  plays  a  part  and  wins  against  odds. 
Here  is  shown  a  piece  of  football  strategy. 

1.  Daring  Strategy.  Read  ''The  Three  Strangers"  in  Wessex 
Tales  by  Thomas  Hardy,  for  the  daring  stratagem  of  the  man  who 
sat  next  the  wall.     Tell  the  story  clearly. 

2.  Brer  Rabbit  Too  Sharp  for  Air.  Fox.  Joel  Chandler  Harris 
tells  this  in  "The  Tar  Baby."  Retell  it,  paying  special  attention  to 
clearness. 

3.  Paul  at  Mars'  Hill.  Refer  to  Paul's  Speech  at  Mars'  Hill, 
Acts  xvii,  18  to  34.  Study  it  as  an  example  of  clearness.  Note 
especially  22-23. 

4.  Jacob  and  Esau.  Tell  how  Jacob  gains  his  father's  blessing 
by  artifice.     Genesis  xxvii,  1-35.     Be  as  clear  as  possible. 

5.  Washington  at  Princeton.  Cornwallis  had  Washington 
hemmed  in.  "  We'll  bag  the  fox  in  the  morning,"  said  the  British 
general.  Washington  kept  his  camp-fires  burning  all  night  and  a 
few  men  busily  engaged  in  throwing  up  embankments  within  hear- 
ing of  the  British  sentinels,  while  he  led  his  army  past  the  left  wing 


Unity  361 

of  his  enemy.  By  daylight  he  was  marching  in  full  force  toward 
Princeton,  where  he  won  a  brilliant  victory.  Tell  the  story  with 
special  reference  to  clearness. 

Unity.  —  TJnity^  one  of  the  strongest  elements  of  clear- 
ness, requires  that  the  phrase,  the  sentence,  the  paragraph, 
and.  the  entire  composition,  each  and  all,  should  tend 
towards  one  and  the  same  thing.  Everything  else  is  to 
be  subordinated^  and  where  that  is  not  possible,  to  be 
eliminated.  The  central  thought  must  have  the  right 
of  way. 

If  you  know  what  you  want  to  say,  and  say  it,  you  will 
have  no  trouble  with  unity.  But  if  you  jot  down  your 
thoughts  as  they  come  to  you,  without  any  definite  plan, 
you  will  very  likely  fail  in  securing  this  desirable  quality. 
Before  beginning  to  write,  prepare  an  outline,  and  when 
you  come  to  write,  make  everything  bend  to  your  scheme 
or  outline.  It  will  guide  you  as  nothing  else  can.  It 
helps  you  stick  to  your  subject. 

EXERCISE  IN  UNITY 

(a)  Let  each  student  prepare  a  brief  theme  on  some  topic  of  his 
own  choosing.     Apply  the  tests  heretofore  given. 

(h)  Refer  these  papers  to  a  committee  of  three  for  criticism.  This 
committee  will  select  five  to  ten  papers  from  the  list,  and  refer 
them  without  comment  to  some  critic  chosen  by  them,  but  who  is  not 
a  member  of  the  committee. 

(c)  The  student  thus  chosen  will  select  three  papers  from  this  list, 
and  without  indicating  names,  will  make  a  verbal  report  on  the  excel- 
lences and  shortcomings  of  these  papers,  basing  his  suggestions  on  the 
items  heretofore  given  for  securing  unity.  His  comments  need  not 
be  confined  to  unity,  but  this  must  first  be  considered,  before  referring 
to  other  points. 

Force.  —  Force  or  energy  is  that  quality  of  style  which  so 
expresses  the  thought  as  to  hold  the  attention  of  the  reader 
or  hearer. 

Professor  Wendell  says  that  the  secret  of  clearness  lies 


362  EfiFective  Style 

in  denotation^  the  secret  of  force  in  connotation;  that  is, 
the  secret  of  clearness  is  in  what  is  said^  while  the  secret  of 
force  is  in  what  is  left  unsaid.^  But  he  means  that  it 
is  so  left  unsaid  as  to  suggest  even  more  than  could  be 
said. 

He  relates  a  good  story  of  the  younger  Dumas.  When  the 
first  successful  play  of  the  young  French  writer  was  produced, 
some  old  Parisian  man  of  letters  complimented  him  on  the 
firmness  of  his  style.  To  this  Dumas  is  said  to  have  replied, 
"  There  is  no  end  of  it  out  of  sight."  He  meant,  says  Wendell, 
that  he  had  produced  the  notable  firmness  of  his  style  by  the 
very  simple  process  of  courageously  striking  out  needless  words 
and  phrases,  making  each  word  do  full  work. 

Illustrations  of  Force.  —  Testing  force  by  the  fact  that 
it  holds  attention,  Wendell  quotes  a  passage  from  Dante's 
Inferno^  which  he  states  he  has  never  forgotten  since  the 
first  day  he  read  it.  It  tells  how  Dante  and  Virgil,  hav- 
ing emerged  from  a  wood,  find  themselves  on  a  great  dike 
that  skirts  the  edge  of  a  sandy  plain. 

Already,  we  were  so  far  from  the  wood  that  I  could  not  have 
seen  where  it  was,  even  though  I  had  turned  about,  when  we 
met  a  troop  of  spirits,  that  came  close  to  the  dike.  And  each 
of  them  peered  at  us,  as  of  an  evening  one  peers  at  another  be- 
neath the  new  moon,  and  they  knit  their  brows  at  us,  as  an  old 
tailor  does  at  the  eye  of  a  needle. 

"I  have  yet  to  find  a  passage  in  literature,"  Wendell 
goes  on  to  say,  "  that  in  so  few  words  gives  a  more  marvel- 
ously  suggestive  notion  of  what  that  dim  and  ghostly  twi- 
light is  like,  when  one  cannot  quite  tell  what  one  sees, 
when  every  mystery  is  doubly  mysterious,  and  the  crescent 
moon  hangs  low  in  the  west." 


1  In  denotation^  you  say  just  what  you  mean.     In  connotation^  you 
mean  more  than  you  say. 


Force  Everywhere  Effective  363 

Edmund  Burke  in  his  Destruction  of  the  Oarnatio,  dis- 
plays wonderful  energy  of  style  in  describing  how  Hyder 
Ali  wreaks  his  vengeance  on  his  foes. 

When  at  length  Hyder  Ali  found  that  he  had  to  do  with 
men  who  either  would  sign  no  convention,  or  whom  no  treaty 
and  no  signature  could  bind,  and  who  were  the  determined 
enemies  of  human  intercourse  itself,  he  decreed  to  make  the 
country  possessed  by  these  incorrigible  and  predestinated 
criminals  a  memorable  example  to  mankind.  He  resolved,  in 
the  gloomy  recesses  of  a  mind  capacious  of  such  things,  to 
leave  the  whole  Carnatic  an  everlasting  monument  of  ven- 
geance, and  to  put  perpetual  desolation  as  a  barrier  between 
him  and  those  against  whom  the  faith  which  holds  the  moral 
elements  of  the  world  together  was  no  protection.  ...  He 
drew  from  every  quarter  whatever  a  savage  ferocity  could  add 
to  his  new  rudiments  in  the  art  of  destruction ;  and  compound- 
ing all  his  materials  of  fury,  havoc,  and  desolation  into  one 
black  cloud,  he  hung  for  awhile  on  the  declivities  of  the 
mountains. 

Whilst  the  authors  of  all  these  evils  were  idly  and  stupidly 
gazing  on  this  menacing  meteor  which  blackened  their  horizon, 
it  suddenly  burst,  and  poured  down  the  whole  of  its  contents 
upon  the  plains  of  the  Carnatic. 

—  Edmund  Burke. 

Force  Everywhere  Effective.  —  Force  or  energy  in  style 
is  not  limited  to  descriptions  of  battle  or  warfare.  Refer 
to  the  account  of  the  "  Death  of  Little  Nell "  in  the  Old 
Curiosity  Shop,  by  Charles  Dickens,  or  the  story  of  "  The 
Prodigal  Son,"  Luke  xv,  or  to  such  poetry  as  Poe's 
"  Annabel  Lee,"  or  Cowper's  "  Ode  to  His  Mother's  Pic- 
ture," for  fine  energy. 

'  The  introduction  of  but  one  word  too  much  tends  to 
weaken  your  writing,  and  a  profusion  of  adjectives  is  an 
almost  unfailing  sign  of  crudeness.     You   should   early 


364  Effective  Style 

recognize  this,  and  in  recasting  your  productions,  should 
not  hesitate  to  use  the  blue  pencil^  cutting  out  modifying 
words  wherever  they  fail  to  add  force. 

"  Fine  Writing."  —  Nothing  is  more  destructive  of  energy 
in  literature  than  what  has  been  termed  fine  writing.  Arlo 
Bates  well  illustrates  this  in  contrasting  the  Scriptural 
narrative  of  a  certain  scene  with  that  of  Marie  Corelli, 
as  found  in  her  novel,  Barahbas.     Bates  says, 

It  is  part  of  the  description  of  the  appearance  of  Christ  be- 
fore Pontius  Pilate.  Water  having  been  brought,  Pilate, 
according  to  Miss  Corelli,  thus  proceeded  : 

Slowly  lowering  his  hands,  he  dipped  them  in  the  shining 
bowl,  rinsing  them  over  and  over  again  in  the  clear,  cold  ele- 
ment, which  sparkled  in  its  polished  receptacle  like  an  opal 
against  the  fire. 

The  Bible  finds  it  possible  to  say  all  of  this  that  is 
necessary  in  the  words  : 

Pilate  took  water,  and  washed  his  hands. 

EXERCISE  ON  FORCE  OR  ENERGY 

Organize  a  newspaper  staff  ivom  the  class.  Select  a  managing  editor, 
who  shall  from  the  time  of  his  selection  have  a  voice  in  the  selection 
of  his  assistants. 

1.  Select  two  members,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who  are  to  act  as 
the  Associated  Press,  or  some  similar  organization  which  makes 
systematic  newsgathering  a  business.  This  committee  is  to  be 
responsible  for  the  news  contained  in  the  forthcoming  issue,  pro- 
viding two-line  or  three-line  items  of  important  news,  which 
are  to  be  expanded  by  the  newspaper  staff. 

2.  A  similar  committee  is  to  have  charge  of  the  private  tele- 
graph system  conducted  by  the  newspaper.  They  are  to  supply 
one  or  two  interesting  telegraphic  accounts.  They  may  supple- 
ment the  news  items  furnished  by  the  Associated  Press.  The 
telegraph  editor  will  put  these  items  into  final  shape. 


Emphasis  365 

3.  Two  students  are  to  act  as  editors.  These  are  to  com- 
ment on  the  news  items.  In  addition,  each  editor  may  present 
two  four-line  oi  five-line  editorials,  making  three  editorials 
for  each  editor.  These  must  be  read  by  the  managing  editor, 
who  shall  have  control  of  the  editorial  policy  of  the  paper. 
It  might  be  well  for  him  to  indicate  what  he  desires  as  the 
leading  editorial  to  be  written  by  each  editor. 

4.  Three  students  are  to  act  as  reporters,  providing  local 
news  items  of  interest.  These  may  get  their  suggestions  from 
the  managing  editor;  or  they  may  suggest  ideas  of  their  own 
to  him.  But  he  shall  have  control  over  all  news  items  and 
local  paragraphs.  Let  him  see  that  energy  characterizes  every- 
thing that  appeal's  in  his  paper. 

The  managing  editor  will  indicate  the  number  of  words  to  be  used 
by  any  and  all  members  of  his  staff. 

An  assistant  to  the  managing  editor  is  to  read  everything  presented 
for  the  issue,  criticizing  for  form  and  manner  only.  All  work  should 
be  original.  No  item  of  any  kind  not  relating  to  the  day  of  issue  is 
to  be  accepted.     Lei  the  paper  he  read  to  the  class. 

Emphasis.  —  Closely  allied  to  clearness  and  energy,  and 
one  of  their  best  helps,  is  emphasis.  Emphasis  seems  to 
appeal  especially  to  the  ear.  It  describes  to  the  ear  the 
progress  of  the  thought;  and  as  one  writer  says,  "its 
several  strokes  are,  as  it  were,  the  audible  footsteps  of  the 
mind's  march.'^  The  ear  of  the  reader  seems  in  a  way 
to  be  on  the  watch,  when  we  are  reading  to  ourselves, 
to  catch  the  varying  shades  of  emphatic  expression. 

Means  of  Producing  Emphasis.  —  Among  the  means  of 
producing  emphasis  may  be  named  the  following :  (1)  by 
position ;  (2)  by  proportion ;  (3)  by  repetition ;  (4)  by 
the  use  of  figures  of  speech ;  (5)  by  punctuation. 

Emphasis  by  Position.  —  To  make  any  noticeable  change 
in  the  position  of  word,  phrase,  clause,  sentence,  or  para- 
graph, where  this  is  skilfully  done,  is  to  make  it  emphatic. 

Probably  this  method  of  securing  emphasis  hi/ position  is 


366  Effective  Style 

more  carefully  studied  and  better  understood  by  successful 
advertising  writers  than  by  any  other  class  of  writers. 
Study  some  of  the  advertising  matter  found  in  the  lead- 
ing magazines,  and  notice  how  they  display  the  material 
they  use.  They  employ  .few  words,  but  they  make  every 
word  count,  and  study  the  advantage  given  a  word  or 
phrase  by  its  unusual  position.  They  are  after  emphasis 
all  the  time,  and  you  will  note  that  emphasis  hy  position  is 
one  of  their  chief  devices  in  securing  attention. 

Emphasis  by  Proportion.  —  By  saying  more  about  impor- 
tant things,  we  heap  up  the  meaning,  and  emphasize  hy 
proportion.  In  the  following  illustration  from  Phillips^ 
notice  how  he  piles  up  emphasis  on  the^  thought  of 
Napoleon's  devotion  to  self-interest. 

He  knew  no  motive  but  interest ;  acknowledged  no  criterion 
but  success ;  and,  with  an  eastern  devotion,  he  knelt  at  the 
shrine  of  his  idolatry.  Subsidiary  to  this,  there  was  no  creed 
that  he  did  not  profess,  there  was  no  opinion  that  he  did  not 
promulgate :  in  the  hope  of  a  dynasty,  he  upheld  the  crescent ; 
for  the  sake  of  a  divorce,  he  bowed  before  the  cross  ;  the  orphan 
of  St.  Louis,  he  became  the  adopted  child  of  the  Eepublic ;  and, 
with  a  parricidal  ingratitude,  on  the  ruins  both  of  the  throne 
and  the  tribune,  he  reared  the  throne  of  his  despotism. 

—  Charles  Phillips. 

Charles  Sprague^  calling  to  mind  that  not  long  ago  the 
Indians  had  lived  where  his  cultured  hearers  now  sit, 
emphasizes  hy  proportion : 

Beneath  the  same  sun  that  rolls  over  your  head,  the  Indian 
hunter  pursued  the  panting  deer ;  gazing  on  the  same  moon  that 
smiles  for  you,  the  Indian  lover  wooed  his  dusky  mate. 
Here  the  wigwam  blaze  beamed  on  the  tender  and  helpless, 
and  the  council-fires  glared  on  the  wise  and  daring. 

—  The  American  Inaian,  Boston,  July  4,  1825, 

Charles  Sprague. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


367 


Indian  Camp  on  Two  Medicine  Lake,  Glacier  National  Park. 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Blackfeet  Indian  Camp.  —  It  will  strike  the  most  casual  ob- 
server that  this  wigwam  of  a  savage  tribe  comports  wonder- 
fully with  the  picturesqueness  of  its  surroundings. 

Study  a  little  into  the  influence  of  environment,  and  give  a  talk  on 
this  subject. 


368  Effective  Style 

Environment  Versus  Heredity.  Let  the  class  hold  a  round  table 
discussion  on  this  topic.  Go  round  the  class,  and  let  each  member 
give  his  views  in  a  two  or  three  minute  talk  on  the  question,  "  Which 
influences  human  life  and  character  more,  environment  or  heredity?" 
Let  one  student  on  each  side,  chosen  beforehand,  sura  up  in  a  five 
minute  talk. 

The  North  American  Indian.  Prepare  a  paper  on  this  subject,  in- 
cluding as  many  of  the  following  items  as  appeal  to  you:  (a)  the 
origin  of  the  Red  men;  (5)  races  preceding  the  Indians  in  North 
America;  (c)  the  character  of  the  Indian;  (c?)  what  the  Indians  had 
accomplished  in  the  arts  of  civilization  before  the  coming  of  Colum- 
bus; (e)  the  struggle  between  the  Indians  and  the  white  race; 
(/)  the  future  of  the  race. 

Emphasis  by  Repetition.  —  To  discover  how  emphatic 
mere  repetition  is,  you  have  but  to  note  the  difference  be- 
tween the  ordinary  ringing  of  a  bell,  and  the  sound  of 
that  same  bell,  when  rung  as  an  alarm-bell.  The  sound- 
ing of  the  tocsin  sends  a  thrill  to  the  heart  of  every  hearer. 
It  is  the  noticeable  repetition  that  thus  emphasizes  what- 
ever may  be  the  message  of  the  alarm-bell.  Repetition 
gives  a  notable  emphasis  in  speaking  and  writing. 

This  is  another  device  that  is  relied  upon  by  advertising 
writers.  They  choose  some  phrase  that  seems  appropriate, 
and  they  ring  the  changes  on  that  phrase  until  the  entire 
public  knows  its  meaning.  They  rely  much  upon  repeti- 
tion for  emphasis  in  all  their  advertising  matter. 

Read  aloud  in  class  the  speech  of  Marc  Antony,  in 
Julius  Ocesar^  Act  iii,  scene  ii,  lines  64  to  262.  Watch 
for  the  repetition  of  the  word  honorable,  and  note  how  he 
varies  the  shades  of  meaning  from  an  apologetic  and 
apparently  friendly  attitude  to  an  attitude  of  undying 
hatred  and  opposition,  until  his  hearers  are  roused  against 
Brutus  and  his  fellow-conspirators  who  slew  Caesar. 

Another  striking  example  of  the  force  of  repetition  as 
producing  emphasis  is  found  in  /  Corinthians  xiii,  entire, 


Figures  of  Speech  369 

where  St.  Paul  lays  heavy  stress  on  the  word  charity. 
Let  this  passage  be  read  aloud  in  class,  to  study  the  force 
of  the  emphasis  thus  expressed. 

Emphasis  by  the  Use  of  Figures  of  Speech.  —  Nothing 
adds  more  to  emphasis  than  a  proper  use  of  figures  of 
speech.  Of  all  these  figures  of  speech,  perhaps  the  most 
striking  is  that  of  personification.  It  speaks  of  things 
without  life  as  though  they  were  alive,  and  capable  of 
everything  that  man  can  do.  There  is  a  fine  example  of 
emphasis  hy  personification  in  the  following  paragraph  : 

With  no  friend  but  his  sword,  and  no  fortune  but  his  talents, 
he  rushed  into  the  lists  where  rank,  and  wealth,  and  genius 
had  arrayed  themselves,  and  competition  fled  from  him,  as 
from  the  glance  of  destiny. 

—  Charles  Phillips. 

Emphasis  by  Punctuation.  —  Emphasis  is  indicated  to 
the  eye  by  punctuation.  The  most  emphatic  mark  of 
punctuation  is  the  exclamation  point.  The  period  is  often 
emphatic,  as  is  very  frequently  the  interrogation  mark. 
The  colon  is  sometimes  emphatic,  and  emphasis  is  often 
indicated  by  the  dash. 

The  use  of  the  exclamation  point  is  not  to  be  en- 
couraged. The  rule  for  its  use  may  be  thus  stated.  Use 
the  exclamation  point  where  the  emphasis  really  demands 
it,  but  do  not  try  to  make  your  writing  emphatic  by  its 
use.  •  The  following  is  an  example  of  the  correct  use  of 
the  exclamation  point. 

Huntsman,  rest !  thy  chase  is  done ; 

While  our  slumb'rous  spells  assail  ye, 
Dream  not,  with  the  rising  sun, 

Bugles  here  shall  sound  reveille. 
Sleep  !  the  deer  is  in  his  den ; 

Sleep  !  thy  hounds  are  by  thee  lying ; 


370  Effective  Style 

Sleep !  nor  dream  in  yonder  glen, 

How  thy  gallant  steed  lay  dying. 
Huntsman,  rest ;  thy  chase  is  done, 
Think  not  of  the  rising  sun, 
For  at  dawning  to  assail  ye. 
Here  no  bugle  sounds  reveille. 

—  From  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Sir  Walter  Scott 

The  cheaper  class  of  newspapers  endeavor  to  create 
emphasis  by  the  use  of  all  the  devices  known  to  the 
printer's  art.  The  only  result  of  this,  however,  is  to 
multiply  a  spurious  sort  of  emphasis,  which  defeats  its 
own  purpose,  making  the  lack  of  real  emphasis  painful  to 
the  judicious  reader. 

Emphasis  by  Italicizing.  —  The  use  of  italics  is  another 
method  of  indicating  emphasis  to  the  eye. »  While  it  is 
often  necessary,  yet  the  rule  holds  that  real  emphasis 
should  be  in  the  matter  and  not  in  the  manner  of  its 
presentation.  The  use  of  italics  in  your  writing  should 
be  rare. 

EXERCISE  m  EMPHASIS 

Laying  Hold  of  Opportunity.  —  Show  how  opportunity  should  be 
seized.  Shape  your  writing  in  any  way  you  please.  Let  it  be  a 
theme,  or  a  short  story,  or  put  it  in  editorial  form.  If  you  prefer 
the  story  form,  take  an  ordinary,  everyday  man  or  woman,  boy  cr 
girl,  under  circumstances  that  might  confront  any  one  of  the  thousands 
living  in  a  large  city,  and  make  a  hero  or  heroine  of  on^  who  lays 
hold  of  opportunity.  Think  the  emphasis  into  your  story.  Crowd 
force  into  it  by  hard  thinking. 

1.  Use  an  outline.  Do  not  adopt  this  framework  hastily. 
Test  it  for  emphasis. 

2.  Cut  it  down.  Use  not  more  than  half  the  number  of 
words  you  feel  that  you  would  like  to  use. 

3.  Rewrite  it.  First  drafts  are  valuable,  but  seldom  thor- 
oughly satisfactory.     Use  what  the  first  draft  offers  as  the 


Elegance  371 

basis  of  what  your  final  draft  is  to  be,  but  challenge  the  right 
of  every  word,  phrase,  clause,  sentence,  and  paragraph  to  its 
place  in  your  writing. 

Elegance.  —  Elegance  in  style  implies  three  things  : 
(1)  ease  of  execution :  (2)  sustained  power  in  speaking 
and  writing ;  and  (3)  a  mastery  of  all  that  is  best  in 
literary  work. 

Elegance  is  that  subtle  something  in  a  work  of  literary  art 
which  makes  us  feel  delight  in  the  workmanship. 

—  Wendell. 

When  a  piece  of  literary  work  is  justly  characterized  as 
elegant,  it  is  because  all  that  enters  into  it  has  been  well 
chosen.  The  derivation  of  the  word  elegance  shows  the 
secret  of  its  attainment.  It  comes  from  the  two  Latin 
words  ex  and  lego^  meaning  to  choose  from.  Trying  this, 
that,  and  the  other  method  of  expressing  what  you  have 
in  mind  to  say  begets  an  instinct  which  not  only  tells  you 
when  you  are  right,  but  before  long  enables  you  to  get  it 
right  at  first.  You  do  with  ease  and  apparently  without 
thinking^  what  it  has  taken  much  thinking  to  learn  to  do. 

Elegance  often  shows  in  the  judicious  use  of  what  is 
termed  prose  rhythm. 

Prose  Rhythm.  —  Prose  rhythm  gives  to  the  periods  a 
certain  measured  flow,  the  result  sometimes  of  a  natural, 
but  more  often  of  a  cultivated  ear,  imparting  an  "  exqui- 
site but  unobtrusive  melody,"  and  constituting  an  attrac- 
tive feature  of  the  style.  Though  this  is  to  be  sought 
after  by  the  young  writer,  yet  a  too  frequent  or  injudicious 
use  of  it  is  to  be  avoided.  Nothing  tires  the  hearer  or 
reader  so  much  as  an  apparent  or  pretentious  striving 
after  this  effect. 

The  King  James  Version  of  the  Scriptures  owes  much 
of  its  charm  to   the  wonderful   beauty  of   its   matchless 


372  Effective  Style 

rhythm,  and  if  the  new  translation  has  in  any  way  failed 
to  lay  hold  of  the  English-speaking  world,  it  may  be 
largely  because  of  its  neglect  of  this  important  element  of 
style. 

Speakers  and  writers  who  win  the  heart  of  the  people 
owe  much  to  this  quality.  Study  the  selection  from 
Dickens  for  its  beauty  of  rhythm.  You  will  find  in  the 
passage  from  Burke  that  the  rhythm-beat  lends  force  and 
dignity  to  the  thought. 

When  Death  strikes  down  the  innocent  and  young,  for  every 
fragile  form  from  which  he  lets  the  panting  spirit  free,  a 
hundred  virtues  rise,  in  shapes  of  mercy,  charity,  and  love,  to 
walk  the  world  and  bless  it.  Of  every  tear  that  sorrowing 
mortals  shed  on  such  green  graves,  some  good  is  born,  some 
gentler  nature  comes. 

—  The  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens. 

It  is  gone,  that  sensibility  of  principle,  that  chastity  of 
honor,  which  felt  a  stain  like  a  wound,  which  inspired  courage, 
whilst  it  mitigated  ferocity,  which  ennobled  whatever  it 
touched,  and  under  which  vice  itself  lost  half  its  evil,  by 
losing  all  its  grossness. 

—  Edmund  Burke. 

ORAL  EXERCISES  IN  EFFECTIVE  STYLE 

Oral  Work  for  Special  Occasions.^  —  When  it  is  considered  how  much 
more  frequently  we  are  called  upon  to  speak  than  we  are  to  write, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  importance  of  practice  in  speaking 
on  various  occasions  may  be  readily  seen.  Try  some  of  the  following 
exercises  in  oral  work.  Try  to  work  in  something  you  have  learned 
in  this  chapter. 

(a)  Announcing  the  Purpose  of  a  Meeting.  Suppose  that  a 
meeting  has  been  called  for  some  definite  purpose,  for  in- 
stance, to  consider  ways  and  means  for  financing  the  athletic 


1  Suggested  by  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


Oral  Exercises  in  Effective  Style         373 

association ;  or  to  raise  a  fund  for  the  purchase  of  reference 
books  for  the  class ;  or  to  provide  money  for  buying  a  piece  of 
statuary  as  the  class  gift  to  the  school ;  or  to  take  up  a  collec- 
tion for  sufferers  of  some  kind  ;  or  to  make  a  request  of  the 
faculty,  or  of  the  Board  of  Education.  You  are  put  forward 
as  temporary  chairman.  Tell  in  twenty-five  words,  the  object 
of  the  meeting. 

(b)  Introducing  the  Speaker  of  the  Evening.  —  It  devolves  upon 
you  to  introduce  the  speaker.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of 
thinking  that  you  are  the  entertainer.  Modesty  in  such  cases 
is  a  great  virtue.  Say  what  you  have  to  say  in  a  very  few 
words.  Not  over  twenty  or  twenty-five  at  the  most.  Do  not 
flatter  the  speaker  unduly.     This  is  in  poor  taste. 

(c)  Rising  to  Ask  a  Question.  —  Some  doubt  exists  as  to  what 
to  do,  even  after  due  explanations  have  been  made.  Rise,  and 
ask  a  definite  question,  courteously  and  briefly. 

(d)  Soliciting  Cooperation. — You  are  the  representative  of  one 
English  class,  sent  to  solicit  the  cooperation  of  the  other  classes 
of  your  school,  or  of  other  high  schools,  in  some  matter  of  com- 
mon interest.  Get  permission  from  the  instructor,  and  make 
an  address  of  not  more  than  five  minutes.  Unfailing  courtesy 
is  a  necessary  element  of  this  sort  of  work.  Go  straight  to 
your  purpose,  wasting  no  time  in  preliminaries. 

(e)  Gift  Presentation.  —  Some  gift  is  to  be  presented ;  a  medal, 
or  the  school  letters,  won  in  athletics ;  the  prize  in  a  spelling 
match ;  some  remembrance  to  one  or  another.  Make  a  speech 
suited  to  the  occasion.  Use  brevity  of  speech,  but  try  to  make 
at  least  one  good  point.  Your  school  has  won  the  loving  cup, 
two  out  of  three  times,  in  the  interscholastic  field  day,  and  it 
now  belongs  to  you.  Make  the  presentation  speech.  Take  ten 
minutes,  and  touch  on  the  good  qualities  of  each  of  your  lead- 
ing athletes. 

(/)  Sales  Talks.*— Make  a  talk  on  each  of  the  following 
points  concerning  sales.  1.  Managing  a  Team  of  Salesmen.  —  It 
devolves  on  you  to  instruct  three  boys  or  girls  who  are  to  spend 
a  week  during  the  holidays  in  a  neighboring  city,  on  a  campaign 


374  Effective  Style 

for  subscriptions  to  the  Saturday  Evening  Post.  Outline  a  good 
plan  for  the  week,  and  include  instructions  as  to  how  to  sell 
your  paper.     Ten  minutes. 

2.  Individual  Sales.  —  You  are  now  to  do  what  you  have  just 
told  others  to  do,  get  subscriptions  for  your  paper.  Give  a 
three-minute  talk,  showing  what  the  paper  is,  and  why  your 
prospective  customer  ought  to  subscribe. 

3.  Selling  a  Vacuum  Sweeper.  —  Give  the  talk  that  brings  a 
purchase.     Three  minutes. 

4.  Miscellaneous.  —  Try  any  of  the  following :  selling  real 
estate ;  selling  a  farm ;  selling  Florida  or  Texas  lands  ;  selling 
a  used  automobile ;  acting  as  agent  for  an  athletic  goods  house, 
and  selling  a  basket-ball  outfit  to  a  neighboring  high  school ; 
selling  stock  in  a  mine  in  which  you  own  some  stock. 

(g)  Explaining  a  Business  Proposition.  —  You  have  been  em- 
ployed to  visit  a  certain  list  of  citizens,  to  ask  their  cooperation 
in  establishing  a  factory  that  will  greatly  benefit  your  neigh- 
borhood. A  subscription  of  twenty-five  dollars  is  required  of 
each  subscriber.  Make  a  five-minute  talk.  Prepare  a  second 
talk,  in  case  your  first  talk  fails  of  its  purpose.  Be  courteous, 
but  do  not  be  easily  discouraged.  Meet  the  objections,  and 
come  back  with  new  arguments.  Use  the  fact  that  others  are 
taking  hold. 

{h)  Farewell  Speech.  —  You  are  going  away.  Your  literary 
society  has  shown  its  appreciation  of  your  services  in  some 
ofiice.  Bid  the  society  farewell,  briefly  but  pleasantly.  Ex- 
press your  good  will  toward  the  society  and  the  school. 

Note. — Two  things  are  to  be  avoided  in  all  of  the  above,  especially 
where  sentiment  enters  into  the  occasion.  (1)  Do  not  be  extravagant. 
(2)  Do  not  be  silly.  Be  as  humorous  as  you  please  ;  but  in  being  hu- 
morous, do  not  skate  on  ice  that  is  too  thin. 

(i)  An  Imaginary  Banquet.  —  Let  four  or  five  students  be 
chosen  as  after-dinner  speakers  at  a  banquet.  If  deemed  ad- 
visable, several  groups  of  four  or  five  speakers  may  be  assigned, 
each  group  to  celebrate  a  different  occasion.  Let  one  group 
celebrate  St.  Patrick's  Day  by  a  suitable  program.      Another 


Oral  Exercises  in  EfiFective  Style         375 

may  celebrate  Lincoln's  birthday.  Still  another  may  honot 
Columbus,  or  George  Washington,  or  Robert  E.  Lee,  or  the 
founder  of  your  school ;  or  impersonate  the  people  at  a  banquet 
of  the  Sons  or  Daughters  of  the  Revolution,  or  some  pioneers' 
organization.  It  will  not  be  difficult  to  decide  upon  a  suitable 
occasion  for  celebration.  If  the  celebration  can  be  made  to  fit 
the  date,  so  much  the  better. 

Let  the  toastmaster  be  chosen  for  his  skill  and  wit.  He 
should  be  brief,  but  able  to  make  every  word  count,  and  keep 
the  table  in  a  roar.  Courtesy  should  characterize  his  every 
effort.  Let  him  summarize  the.  topic  of  each  speaker  in  a  sen- 
tence of  not  more  than  ten  words  for  each. 

The  individual  speakers  are  to  have  their  subjects  or  "  toasts  " 
carefully  phrased,  so  as  to  give  them  the  opportunity  of  saying 
much  in  little.  They  should  be  able  to  tell  one  story  well,  and 
should  above  all  things,  know  when  to  quit.  Brevity  is  said  to 
be  the  soul  of  wit.  Let  the  speakers  be  brief.  Let  one  thing 
be  noted,  however;  in  making  his  speech,  the  after-dinner 
speaker  is  not  limited  by  anything  except  time.  He  can  make 
it  in  any  way  he  pleases,  always  keeping  courtesy  and  the 
eternal  fitness  of  things  well  in  mind. 

(J)  Dramatic  Impersonation.  —  Imagine  yourselves  members 
of  a  committee  of  the  Continental  Congress,  holding  a  meeting 
on  some  important  question.  Dress  to  suit  the  characters,  and 
act  out  some  impressive  scene,  the  details  of  which  have  been 
prepared  by  one  of  the  class  whose  ambition  it  is  to  become  a 
writer.     This  may  be  made  quite  effective. 

(k)  The  High  School  Gridiron  Club.  —  Look  up  in  the  files  of 
any  good  newspaper  an  account  of  the  doings  of  the  Gridiron 
Club,  of  Washington,  D.  C.  Carry  out  a  similar  program. 
Deal  with  notable  athletic  and  literary  society  happenings. 
Avoid  giving  cause  for  offense. 

(Z)  The  American  Red  Cross.  —  Nothing  affords  a  better 
opportunity  for  an  effective  speech  than  the  Red  Cross.  In 
both  war  and  peace,  it  is  first  with  its  aid  for  suffering 
humanity.     Make  an  appeal  for  its  support. 


876 


EfTective  Style 


The  Battle  of  Waterloo. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Waterloo.  — This  is  a  scene  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The 
painter  is  Frangois  Flameng.  This  battle  sealed  the  doom  of 
Napoleon.  It  is  so  famous  that  its  name  is  often  used  to 
suggest  utter  failure. 

Study  about  the  battle,  and  give  a  talk  on  it.  Take  the  side  of 
Napoleon,  or  of  the  English,  and  state  what  you  believe  to  be  the  facts 
concerning  one  of  the  great  figures  of  history,  and  the  battle  that 
shattered  all  his  hopes. 

Napoleon.  —  Prepare  an  address  on  Napoleon.  Give  your  subject 
careful  study,  if  you  attempt  it  at  all,  and  use  as  many  words  as 
you  deem  best,  but  not  more  than  one  thousand.  Unless  you  write 
it  out  and  learn  it,  you  can  say  well  all  you  have  to  say  in  about  two 
hundred  words.  Feel  free,  however,  to  express  your  own  view  of 
Napoleon.  Take  care  not  to  ofEend  those  in  your  class  who  hold  op- 
posing views. 


CHAPTER   XXVri 
THE  MECHANICS  OF  EFFECTIVE  STYLE 


Exercise  is  the  chief  source  of  improvement  in  all  our  faculties. 

—  Blair. 


Measurement.  —  In  order  to  write  effectively  you  must 
know  how  much  you  are  writing.  You  ought  to  be  able  to 
write  ten  words,  or  fifty  words,  or  one  hundred  words, 
and  know  when  you  have  done  so.  That  is,  you 
should  be  able  to  gauge  your  writing^  as  to  the  number  of 
words. 

You  should  know  how  many  words  in  your  ordinary 
hand  will  fill  a  page  of  manuscript.  In  counting  words, 
all  words,  including  a,  aw,  and  the^  are  to  be  counted. 
You  will  find  that  you  average 'so  many  words  to  the  page. 
Your  own  page  will  thus  become  your  unit  of  measurement^ 
and  you  will  be  enabled  to  tell  the  number  of  words  in  any 
given  article,  theme,  or  paper  you  have  written. 

In  this  book  special  attention  has  been  given  from  the 
first  to  accurate  measurement  of  the  number  of  words. 
You  are  to  continue  to  measure  all  that  you  are  called 
upon  to  write.  Professional  writers  count  the  number  of 
words  in  everything  they  produce,  indicating  the  number 
of  words  of  every  article. 

In  preparing  any  matter  that  is  to  be*  spoken,  or  to  be 
read  aloud,  the  safe  average. to  allow  is  from  one  hundred 
words  per  minute  to  perhaps  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
words  per  minute,  for  the  allotted  time,  and  this  only  in 

377 


378  Mechanics  of  Style 

the  case  of  the  practiced  speaker.  Beginners  should  not 
allow  more  than  eighty  or  ninety  words  to  the  minute. 

You  can  say  as  much  in  five  hundred  words  as  you  can 
in  six  hundred,  or  seven  hundred,  or  in  a  thousand  words. 
It  will  be  harder  work,  and  it  will  take  time  to  boil  down 
your  material  and  pack  your  sentences  full  of  force  and 
emphasis.  But  your  speech  will  then  have  all  the  more 
force. 

Another  reason  why  fewer  words  to  the'  minute  are 
more  effective  is  that  it  gives  the  impression  of  an  unused 
fund  of  power  on  your  part.  You  seem  to  have  yourself 
well  in  hand.  You  have  bo  counted  your  words  as  to  make 
every  word  count. 

Count  the  words  in  the  speech  or  writing  of  some  master, 
and  try  to  say  the  same  thing  in  as  few  words.  Take  some 
excellent  work  of  your  own,  and  try  to  make  it  better  in 
fewer  words.  If  you  work  at  it  intelligently,  you  will  be 
surprised  at  the  improvement  in  your  English.  It  will 
mean  much  more  than  it  says.,  and  this  is  a  fine  test  of 
speech  or  writing. 

EXERCISES  IN  MEASUREMENT 

(a)  Ten-word  Exercises,  Set  1.  —  Limit  the  following  telegrams 
to  ten  words  each. 

1.  Ask  why  your  friend  did  not  arrive  on  the  noon  train,  as 
agreed,  and  inquire  when  to  expect  him  or  her. 

Note.  —  In  writing  telegrams,  the  address  and  signature  are  not 
charged  for.  Each  figure  counts  as  one  word.  Write  out  your  numbers, 
and  do  not  use  figures.  In  cable  messages,  charge  is  made  for  each  word. 
In  order  to  reduce  expense,  ingenious  "codes"  are  devised,  in  which  a 
single  word  stands  for  a  complete  sentence. 

2.  Send  a  telegram  of  congratulation  to  a  friend  on  his 
securing  a  desirable  public  office. 

3.  Give  your  parents  an  account  of  an  accident  to  the 


Exercises  in  Measurement  379 

train  on  whicli  you  are  going  east.     Give  particulars,  including 
statement  of  your  own  escape  from  injury. 

4.  You  are  on  your  way  to  the  wedding  of  a  friend,  and 
are  unexpectedly  delayed  by  the  falling  of  a  bridge.  Indi- 
cate the  cause  of 'the  delay,  and  when  you  will  probably  arrive. 

(b)  Ten-word  Exercises,  Set  2.  —  Write  the  following  exercises, 
limiting  the  number  of  words  to  ten. 

1.  Your  father  left  at  daybreak  by  train  to  open  an  im- 
portant legal  case.  He  discovers  that  he  has  left  papers  of 
value  at  home.  He  wires  description  and  requests  you  to 
forward  them.  You  find  the  papers  and  comply  with  his 
request.  Write  out  his  telegram  and  your  reply,  each  in  ten 
words. 

2.  A  teachers'  agency  offers  you  a  school  at  Danville, 
Kentucky,  at  seventy-five  dollars  a  month,  for  ten  months  of 
school.     Write  the  telegram  and  your  reply. 

3.  Wire  the  postmaster  at  Charlottesville,  Virginia,  asking 
him  to  forward  your  mail  to  Washington,  D.  C,  care  of  general 
delivery. 

4.  You  are  manager  of  your  high  school  nine.  Wire  the 
manager  of  the  nine  at  Terre  Haute,  Indiana,  challenging  him 
to  a  game  on  your  grounds  for  the  second  Friday  in  June. 
You  ask  half  the  gate  money. 

(c)  Twenty-jive-word  Exercises.  —  In  each  of  the  following,  use 
twenty-five  words. 

1.  Write  a  note  of  congratulation  to  a  friend  on  his  nine- 
teenth birthday. 

2.  Write  a  letter  of  condolence  to  your  friend  on  the  death 
of  a  relative. 

3.  Write  a  note  to  accompany  some  small  gift  or  remem- 
brance. 

4.  Write  a  note  home  from  the  train,  and  drop  it  in  the 
mail-box  at  the  station,  to  let  your  family  know  that  you  are 
en  route. 


380  Mechanics  of  Style 

5.  Write  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  a  magazine,  offering  some 
photographs  taken  while  at  the  seashore. 

(d)  Night  or  Day  Letters.  Fifty  words.  —  Telegrams  containing 
fifty  words  may  be  sent  at  night  for  the  same  charge  as  for  ten-word 
telegrams.     Thousands  of  such  letters  are  sent. 

1.  Write  a  telegram  of  one  hundred  words,  and  condense 
it  to  fifty  words. 

2.  Your  sister  has  lost  her  valise  in  the  Grand  Central 
Station,  Kew  York  City.  Telegraph  her  on  board  Train  No.  34, 
N.  Y.  Central  R.  R.,  care  conductor,  stating  that  you  have 
found  the  valise  and  will  forward  same  to  her  address  at 
Buffalo. 

3.  You  were  to  have  met  a  party  at  Detroit,  going  north 
for  a  summer  vacation  trip.  You  have  unexpectedly  been 
called  upon  to  make  a  report  that  will  take  two  or  three  days 
in  preparing.  Wire  your  party,  care  the  Station,  indicating 
when  and  where  you  will  join  them.  They  are  going  out  on 
the  Pere  Marquette  road. 

4.  You  have  been  invited  to  a  house  party  at  Louisville, 
to  spend  a  week  there,  and  then  go  to  Memphis.  You  find 
that  you  are  unable  to  get  there  until  the  end  of  the  week. 
Wire  your  regrets  for  the  delay,  asking  whether  you  shall  come 
then,  or  wait  to  join  them  at  Memphis.  That  will  give  them  a 
chance  to  invite  some  one  in  your  place  for  the  Louisville 
party,  if  they  so  choose.  Express  wishes  for  a  pleasant 
time. 

(e)  Hundred-word  Exercises.  —  Write  each  of  the  following  exer- 
cises in  one  hundred  words. 

1.  Tell  in  one  hundred  words  the  story  of  Arnold's 
treason.  The  best  way  to  do  this,  probably,  will  be  to  write 
your  account  without  special  reference  to  the  number  of  words, 
and  then  cut  it  down,  discarding  all  unnecessary  words. 
Then  rewrite  it,  aiming  to  make  it  just  one  hundred  words 
in  length. 


Exercises  in  Measurement  381 

2.  Tell  in  the  same  number  of  words  how  "  messengers  " 
are  sent  up  on  a  kite-string.  Explain  the  philosophy  of  this, 
that  is,  tell  why  these  bits  of  paper  rise  the  whole  length  of 
the  string. 

3.  If  any  recent  archaeological  find  has  been  made  ;  that  is, 
if  any  discovery  of  ancient  statues  has  been  announced,  tell 
about  it  in  one  hundred  words.  Eefer  to  the  newspaper 
account,  if  you  have  it ;  or  ask  the  librarian  to  help  you  find 
any  facts  within  reach. 

4.  Give  a  pen  picture  of  any  one  of  the  following,  in  one 
hundred  words :  (a)  An  old-fashioned,  but  lovely  lady  ;  (6)  A 
description  of  the  theaters  in  Shakespeare's  time  ;  (c)  A 
newly  landed  immigrant  family ;  {d)  The  statue  of  Venu^  de 
Milo;  (e)  A  cloud-capped  mountain  peak,  as  for  instance, 
Pikes  Peak,  seen  from  any  point  in  the  vicinity  of  Denver ; 
(/)  A  glimpse  of  the  Hudson  river,  or  the  Greenbrier ; 
of  the  Ohio,  or  the  Susquehanna,  the  Missouri,  the  Rio 
Grande,  or  the  Mississippi.  Or  describe  any  stream  near 
you. 

(/)  Write  upon  these  topics  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

Discuss  any  one  of  the  following  topics  regarding  the  de- 
portment of  girls  under  the  circumstances  indicated,  suggesting 
what  is  proper  and  what  not  proper  to  do ;  what  are  the 
latest  requirements,  socially  or  otherwise,  and  what  are  the 
dictates  of  authorities  on  dress  and  such  matters  on  differ- 
ent occasions,  and  any  other  items  that  may  suggest  them- 
selves. 

(1)  The  Girl  at  School.  (6)  The  Girl  as  a  Hostess. 

(2)  The  Girl  in  the  Gym-        (7)  The    Girl    at   a    Recep- 

nasium.  tion. 

(3)  The  Girl  on  the  Play-       (8)  The  Girl  in  First  Aid  to 

ground.  the  Injured. 

(4)  The      Girl      Travelmg        (9)  The  Girl  as  an  Autoist. 

Alone.  (10)  The  Girl   as   a  Journal- 

(5)  The  Girl  in  the  Office.  ist. 


382 


Mechanics  of  Style 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


WooLWORTH  Building,  New  York  City. 
Seen  through  an  arch  of  the  City  Hall. 


A  Glimpse  of  New  York 
City.  —  But  what  a 
glimpse !  A  style  of  ar- 
chitecture born  in  Amer- 
ica, majestic  in  its  beauty, 

—  the  Wool  worth  Build- 
ing, seen  through  an  arch 
of  the  City  Hall. 

1.  Study  the  picture,  and 
describe  it. 

2.  Study    of   a    Building. 

—  If  you  live  near  enough 
to  visit  this  building,  do  so, 
and  report  to  the  class  on 
what  you  saw. 

3.  If  you  live  in  an  impor- 
tant city,  decide  in  class  on 
what  building  is  most  worth 
your  study.  Make  a  study 
of  this  building,  and  report 
it  to  the  class. 

4.  If  you  live  in  a  remoter 
neighborhood,  think  carefully 
over  all  the  buildings  in  your 
neighborhood,  and  make  a 
study  of  the  one  that  seems 
most  interesting  from  an 
architectural  point  of  view. 
Write  a  description  of  it. 


Arrangement.  —  By  arrangement  in  composition  you  are 
enabled  to  make  the  most  of  your  material.  It  is  not 
separate  and  distinct  from  the  qualities  of  style,  but  it 
combines  all  there  is  in  literary  style  to  best  advantage. 

Arrangement  is  said  by  one  critic  to  be  the  heart  of  the 
theory  of  style.  If  it  were  possible  to  give  to  two  writers 
the  same  words,  thoughts,  illustrations,  purpose,  and  the 


Rearranging  383 

same  occasion,  one  might  so  arrange  the  material  as  to  make 
his  effort  a  work  of  genius,  while  the  work  of  the  other 
might  be  a  mere  jumble  of  words. 

You  should  early  cultivate  the  habit  of  knowing  at  the 
outset  what  you  intend  to  say.  This  is  not  easy  at  first 
as  it  takes  real  determination  to  accomplish  ;  but  resolute 
effort  in  this  direction  will  have  its  reward  in  a  settled 
habit  of  mind. 

In  any  kind  of  building  worth  the  name,  the  architect's 
plans  must  precede  the  actual  construction  work.  This  is 
what  Walter  Pater  has  in  mind  when  he  says  that  for  a 
writer  to  succeed,  he  must  have  "  an  architectural  con- 
ception" of  the  writing  he  has  in  mind,  which  foresees  the 
end  from  the  beginning,  and  never  loses  sight  of  the  object. 

The  most  simple  direction  that  can  be  given  for  this  is, 
that  words  he  arranged  in  the  order  which  most  clearly  brings 
out  the  thought.  In  order  that  you  may  get  at  this,  try  the 
effect  of  words,  and  of  all  the  elements  of  composition, 
shaping  and  reshaping,  writing  and  rewriting  your  work. 
This  gives  you  a  style  of  your  own  that  you  could  acquire 
in  no  other  way. 

Rearranging.  —  In  rewriting  your  sentences  to  get  at  the 
best  possible  arrangement,  the  question  for  you  to  ask  is. 
Have  I  succeeded  in  making  this  thought  plain  ?  Have  1 
really  said  what  I  started  out  to  say?  Never  be  satisfied 
with  anything  short  of  this. 

EXERCISES  IN  ARRANGEMENT 

(a)  Arranging  a  Newspaper  Story.  —  Read  carefully  the  Ode  on  a 
Grecian  Urn  by  John  Keats  so  as  to  catch  the  fine  description  there 
given.  Either  mentally,  or  with  a  written  list,  note  from  twenty  to  fifty 
words  occurring  in  the  poem,  to  be  woven  into  your  description,  as 
required  below. 

1.  Write  an  article  in  newspaper  style  in  three  hundred 
words,  disguising  the  fact  that  you  are  getting  your  description 


384  Mechanics  of  Style 

from  Keats.  Test  it  later  on  to  see  whether  or  not  you  ha^e 
succeeded  in  making  your  work  appear  original. 

2.  Write  a  cabled  account,  dating  it  at  Naples,  Italy,  show- 
ing how  an  Italian  laborer  engaged  in  exploring  some  ruins 
comes  upon  a  vase,  which  experts  declare  to  be  a  valuable 
"  find  "  and  a  piece  of  work  of  rare  and  exquisite  beauty.  Ad- 
dress it  as  if  to  a  leading  newspaper  in  one  of  our  largest 
cities. 

Make  it  in  two  paragra^phs,  the  first  a  summarizing  para- 
graph, in  seventy-five  words,  detailing  the  finding  of  the  vase  ; 
and  the  other  descriptive  of  the  vase,  in  two  hundred  or  more 
words.   • 

Note.  — Cabled  accounts  (so  headed)  are  often  forwarded  by  mail,  or 
written  in  the  editorial  ofl&ce.  Frequently,  a  telegraphic  or  cabled  item  is 
enlarged  upon.  Material  taken  from  the  encyclopedia  or  reference  library, 
and  photographs  long  held  for  just  such  occasions  are  used  with  ex- 
cellent effect.* 

(b)  A  rranging  Description  of  Picture  Work.  —  Take  one  or  more  of 
the  following  exercises  on  picture  work. 

1.  Suppose  you  are  working  on  a  newspaper.  The  editor 
hands  you  a  picture  of  Raeburn's  William  Ferguson  of  Kilrie, 
You  are  to  write  two  hundred  words. 

2.  Go  to  the  art  room  of  the  public  library ;  or  to  the  li- 
brary of  the  art  museum,  if  open  to  the  public  or  to  you  ;  or 
procure  an  illustrated  art  catalogue,  or  a  book  descriptive  of 
artists  and  their  work.  Select  one  from  the  list  of  famous 
portraits  given  below,  and  write  a  careful  description  of  it  in 
two  hundred  words.  Work  by  outline.  Crowd  your  article 
with  information. 

{a)  Van  Dyck's  William  II,  Prince  of  Nassau ;  (h)  Gains- 
borough's The  Blue  Boy;  (c)  Countess  Potocka,  by  an  unknown 
artist;  (d)  Whistler's  Carlyle;  (e)  Lely  or  Cooper's  Oliver 
Cromwell;  (/)  Stuart's  Washington;  (g)  Franz  Hals'  Laugh- 
ing Cavalier. 

(c)  Arranging  Editorials.  —  Prepare  a  first  draft,  and  on  the  basis 
of  that,  arrange  your  material  for  a  careful  editorial. 


Exercises  385 

1.  Suppose  there  is  a  campaign  and  you  are  anxious  for  your 
party  to  win.  The  registration  is  close.  You  are  editor  of  a 
city  paper,  and  to-morrow  is  election  day.  Arrange  an  editorial 
for  to-morrow's  issue,  in  three  hundred  words,  urging  every  man 
to  go  to  the  polls. 

2.  Arrange  an  editorial  on  "  Hopefulness  for  the  Future," 
reading,  marking,  and  inwardly  digesting  the  thought  contained 
in  Whittier's  poem.  The  Old  and  the  New.  Prepare  the  story 
carefully.  In  your  plan,  show  that  there  is  a  steady  climb  in 
everything  that  pertains  to  human  life.  Write  two  hundred 
and  fifty  words. 

3.  Prepare  an, editorial  suitable  for  a  school  paper,  discuss- 
ing any  one  of  the  following  topics  relating  to  boys.  Arrange 
it  carefully. 

(a)  The  Boy  on  the  Farm,  (b)  The  Boy  as  a  Gentleman: 
(c)  The  Boy  and  the  Savings  Bank,  (d)  The  Boy  as  an  In- 
ventor, (e)  The  Boy  as  a  Hero.  (/)  The  Boy  as  a  Law- 
breaker, (g)  A  Plea  for  the  Public  Playground,  (h)  The  Boy 
as  an  Athlete,  (i)  The  Peculiar  Code  of  Morals  of  Young 
Boys,  (j)  What  Boys  Have  Done  as  Soldiers,  (k)  Chances 
for  Boys.  —  How  do  They  Compare  with  Those  of  Yesterday? 

EXERCISES  IN  CLEAR  THINKING,  AND  ACCURATE,  FLUENT,  AND 
VARIED  EXPRESSION 

Public  Occasions.^- — The  exercises  named  below  are  intended  as 
suggestive.  It  would  hardly  be  possible  to  have  all,  or  even  many  of 
them  on  the  same  program.  There  is  material  here,  or  suggested  by 
what  is  here,  for  many  opportunities  of  appearing  in  public. 

(a)  Graceful  Speeches.  —  Nothing  adds  more  to  the  pleasure  as 
well  as  profit  of  a  convention  or  gathering  of  any  kind  than  a  graceful 
speech  of  welcome,  or  one  outlining  the  plan  of  the  program,  or  of 
compliment  to  the  delegates  to  the  convention,  or  of  sympathy  with 
the  purposes  of  the  gathering  at  which  the  speech  is  made.     This 


1  Public  occasions  should  be  arranged  so  that  pupils,  after  careful 
preparation,  may  have  the  opportunity  of  speaking  in  public.  Emphasis 
should  be  laid  increasingly  upon  clear  thinking  and  accurate,  fluent,  varied 
expression.  — From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


386  Mechanics  of  Style 

matter  of  graceful  speech  is  well  within  the  ability  of  the  high  school 
student,  and  it  should  be  studied  as  a  definite  part  of  his  school  work. 
Try  one  or  more  of  the  following. 

1.  Address  Before  a  Convention  of  Teachers.  —  "Pestalozzi 
as  the  Father  of  Vocational  Training."  Use  about  five  hun- 
'dred  words,  shaping  it  into  a  five-minute  address.  Say  some- 
thing complimentary  concerning  the  profession  of  teaching. 
Use  any  other  title  that  may  interest  you. 

2.  Address  of  Welcome  to  a  Teachers'  Institute.  —  "  Some  of 
the  Rewards  of  Teaching."  In  the  course  of  your  remarks, 
take  occasion  to  speak  of  the  debt  the  student  owes  to  the 
faithful  teacher, 

3.  "  Welcome  to  Our  City.''  —  Prepare  a  five-minute  talk  in 
which  you  take  occasion  to  welcome  some  visiting  organization 
in  convention  assembled. 

4.  A  Presentation  Speech.  —  You  are  made  the  spokesman 
of  your  class  in  making  some  presentation.     Do  it  gracefully. 

(6)  Conversation.  —  You  should  be.  able  to  converse  easily  and  in- 
telligently upon  some  topic  of  the  day.     Choose  an  interesting  topic. 

(c)  Explanation  of  the  reasons  for  a  bond  issue  for  the  building  of  a 
new  high  school.  Prepare  to  speak  for  this  issue,  giving  the  reasons 
for  the  step. 

(rf)  Book  Reviews.  —  Give  a  careful  book  review  of  five  hundred 
words,  equivalent  to  a  five-minute  speech.  Say  a  few  words  about 
the  author.  Tell  the  story  of  the  book,  and  take  one  minute  to  char- 
acterize the  book,  that  is,  to  tell  what  you  think  about  it.  Select 
some  book  worth  while,  whether  a  novel,  a  book  of  biography,  an 
autobiography,  a  book  of  travels,  or  a  book  on  some  scientific  subject. 

(e)  Reports  on  Processes.  —  Describe  some  process.  Take  any  of  the 
following. 

(1)  The  making  of  Bessemer  steel ;  (2)  the  making  of  sugar 
from  sugar  cane .;  (3)  the  making  of  sugar  from  beet  roots ; 
(4)  the  making  of  maple  sugar ;  (5)  how  flour  is  made ;  (6)  the 
process  of  welding  by  the  oxyacetylene  flame. 

(/)  Moot  Court. — Let  a  committee  of  students  who  look  forward 
to  the  study  of  law,  arrange  a  moot  court.     If  they  can  enlist  the  help 


Exercises  387 

of  some  former  students  of  the  high   school  now  at  law  school,  ot 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  the  law,  let  this  be  done. 

(g)  Mock  Trial.  —  Grst  the  help  of  former  members  of  the  school 
who  know  how  to  proceed,  and  arrange  a  mock  trial.  This  is  in  no 
sense  to  be  a  burlesque  trial.  Let  the  students  engaged  in  it  use  their 
best  endeavor  to  carry  on  a  trial. 

Study  the  functions  of  the  judge  on  the  bench  ;  of  the  court  clerk ; 
of  the  sheriff  and  his  deputies ;  of  the  attorneys  for  both  sides  ;  of  the 
witnesses  for  both  sides;  and  of  the  parties  to  the  case.  Introduce 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  features  named  below. 

(1)  The  preliminaries  to  the  trial  of  the  case ;  (2)  a  lawyer's 
plea;  (3)  the  examination  of  witnesses  by  an  attorney,  and  a 
ci'oss  examination  by  the  attorney  on  the  other  side ;  (4)  the 
jury  within  the  jury  room,  discussing  the  testimony ;  (5)  the 
rendering  of  the  verdict  by  the  jury. 

(K)  Reports.  —  Make  yourself  master  of  the  facts,  and  report  on  one 
oj  the  following  topics  of  interest. 

1.  The  progress  of  submarine  construction. 

2.  The  progress  of  aviation  as  an  aid  to  military  organization. 

3.  Obtaining  power,  electrical  or  otherwise,  from  running 
streams. 

(J)  Command  of  Language.  —  The  Report  of  the  National  Joint 
Committee  on  Enalish  urges  exercises  for  command  of  language. 

Prepare  beforehand  enough  good  short  stories  from  current 
magazines  to  go  round  the  class.  Take  an  idea  from  the 
hospital  service  of  many  women's  clubs,  where  short  stories 
thus  clipped  are  bound,  each  story  by  itself,  inclosed  in  a 
strong  manila  envelope,  and  sent  to  the  convalescent  wards. 
Select  only  such  stories  as  may  be  read  in  twenty  minutes  or 
less.  Each  pupil  will  tell  his  story  to  a  student  designated 
by  the  instructor,  and  listen  in  his  turn  to  this  student's 
story.  For  the  next  day  let  each  bring  to  class  the  story  thus 
heard,  carefully  written. 


388 


Mechanics  of  Style 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Facte. 
Capitol  at  Washington. 

The  first  elm  at  the  right  was  planted  by  George  Washington. 

EXERCISES   BASED  ON  PICTURES 

The  Capitol  at  Washington.  —  The  national  Capitol  fitly  rep- 
resents the  majesty  of  the  American  people.  It  is  considered 
one  of  the  finest  examples  of  governmental  arcMtecture.  The 
tree  showing  in  the  picture  just  to  the  right  of  the  Capitol 
was  planted  by  George  Washington. 

1.  The  History  of  the  Capitol.  —  Look  up  the  history  of  the 
Capitol  and  tell  it. 

2.  Your  State  Capitol.  —  Get  what  information  you  can  about 
your  own  Capitol  building.     If  possible,  attach  a  photograph. 

3.  County  or  City  Building.  —  Give  a  description  of  your  county 
or  city  building.  If  you  prefer  to  describe  a  church,  a  fine  residence, 
or  some  office  building,  you  may  do  so. 

4.  A  Famous  Tree.  —  Is  there  any  tree  in  your  vicinity  that  is  his- 
torical ?    If  so,  tell  its  story.     Or  describe  a  tree  notable  for  its  beauty. 


CHAPTER   XXVITT 
BEAUTY,  TASTE,  AND  CRITICISM 


A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever ; 
Its  loveliness  increases ;  it  will  never 
Pass  into  nothingness. 

—  John  Keats. 


Beauty.  —  There  are  many  kinds  of  beauty.  Perhaps 
that  which  is  most  generally  recognized  is  that  of  the 
landscape,  and  of  those  things  we  call  the  picturesque. 
Next,  perhaps,  come  beauty  in  architecture,  in  painting, 
in  sculpture,  and  in  music. 

Beauty  of  rhythm,  poetic  beauty,  beauty  of  eloquence, 
and  literary  beauty,  are  the  objects  of  our  present  study. 

Xaate.  —  Taste  is  that  faculty  by  which  we  discern  and 
enjoy  beauty.  It  should  govern  all  constructive  work  in 
writing.  Taste  is  capable  of  cultivation.  At  first,  the 
student  may  be  able  to  tell  only  what  pleases  or  displeases 
him  in  what  he  hears  or  reads,  but  by  degrees  he  becomes 
able  to  judge  as  to  beauties  or  defects. 

Exercise  in  discrimination  soon  brings  about  a  growing 
and  enlightened,  or  as  we  say,  a  cultivated  taste.  It  has 
been  well  said  by  Goethe  that  "  Taste  should  be  educated 
by  contemplation  not  of  the  tolerably  good,  but  of  the 
truly  excellent.  When  you  have  fully  apprehended  the 
best,  you  will  have  a  standard,  and  will  know  how  to  value 
inferior  performances  without  overrating  them." 

The  best  critics  agree  in  this.     Arnold  Bennett,  in  his 

389 


390  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism 

Literary  Taste  and  How  to  Form  It^  says  that  the  student 
must  begin  with  works  that  are  classic,  and  of  acknowl- 
edged merit,  and  that  he  must  exercise  some  degree  of 
faith  in  the  judgment  of  others  as  to  what  is  beautiful, 
until  ere  long  he  comes  to  value  for  himself  what  is  of 
true  worth,  and  to  judge  of  his  own  work  by  an  intelligent 
and  impartial  estimate. 

Examples  of  Literary  Beauty.  —  The  selections  given  be- 
low will  be  found  to  contain  much  that  is  beautiful,  and  a 
variety  of  beauty.  Let  the  student  read  them  over,  de- 
ciding which  he  considers  most  beautiful,  and  giving 
the  reasons  for  his  choice.  In  addition  to  this,  let  each 
pupil  bring  to  class  one  passage  of  his  own  choosing 
that  appears  beautiful  to  him,  indicating  why  he  thinks 
it  so. 

Let  some  member  of  the  class  who  is  a  good  reader,  read 
these  selections  aloud  in  class,  so  as  to  bring  out  their 
beauty.  The  best  way  to  appreciate  a  fine  selection 
is  to  hear  it  read  aloud.  One  of  the  ancients  well  says 
that  "the  ear  trieth  words,  as  the  tongue  taste th  meat."^ 

SELECTIONS  NOTED  FOR  THEIR  BEAUTY 
On  First  Looking  Into  Chapman's  Homer 

Much  have  I  travelled  in  the  realms  of  gold, 
And  many  goodly  states  and  kingdoms  seen ; 
Eound  many  western  islands  have  I  been 

Which  bards  in  fealty  to  Apollo  hold. 

Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told 

That  deep-brow'd  Homer  ruled  as  his  demesne  j 
Yet  did  I  never  breathe  the  pure  serene 
.  Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold  : 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken ; 

1  Job  xxxiv,  3. 


Examples  of  Literary  Beauty  391 

Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  with  eagle  eyes  ■ 
He  star'd  at  the  Pacific  —  and  all  his  men 

Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise  — 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien. 

—  John  Keats. 

Beauty 

Perhaps  the  most  complete  assemblage  of  beautiful  objects 
that  can  anywhere  be  found,  is  presented  by  a  rich  natural 
landscape,  where  there  is  a  sufficient  variety  of  objects  ;  fields 
in  verdure,  scattered  trees  and  flowers,  running  water  and  ani- 
mals grazing.  If  to  these  be  joined  some  of  the  productions 
of  art  which  suit  such  a  scene ;  as  a  bridge  which  arches  over 
a  river,  smoke  rising  from  cottages  in  the  midst  of  trees,  and 
the  distant  view  of  a  fine  building  seen  by  the  rising  sun ;  we 
then  enjoy,  in  the  highest  perfection,  that  gay,  cheerful  and 
placid  sensation  which  characterizes  beauty. 

—  Hugh  Blair. 

The  Daffodils 

I  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud 

That  floats  on  high  o'er  Vales  and  Hills, 

When  all  at  once  I  saw  a  crowd, 

A  host  of  golden  daffodils  ; 

Beside  the  Lake,  beneath  the  trees, 

Pluttering  and  dancing  in  the  breeze. 

Continuous  as  the  stars  that  shine 
And  twinkle  in  the  milky  way, 
They  stretched  in  never-ending  line 
Along  the  margin  of  the  bay  ; 
Ten  thousand  saw  I  at  a  glance, 
Tossing  their  heads  in  sprightly  dance. 

The  waves  beside  them  danced,  but  they 
Out-did  the  sparkling  waves  in  glee ;  — 
A  poet  could  not  but  be  gay, 
In  such  a  jocund  company: 


392  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism 

I  gazed  —  and  gazed  —  but  little  thought 
What  wealth  the  show  to  me  had  brought 

For  oft,  when  on  my  couch  I  lie 
In  vacant  or  in  pensive  mood, 
They  flash  upon  that  inward  eye 
Which  is  the  bliss  of  solitude, 
And  then  my  heart  with  pleasure  fills, 
And  dances  with  the  Daffodils. 

—  William  Wordsworth. 

Sunrise 

But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  king  of  day. 

Rejoicing  in  the  east.     The  lessening  cloud. 

The  kindling  azure,  and  the  mountain's  brow 

Illumed  with  liquid  gold,  his  near  approach 

Betoken  glad.     Lo  !  now  apparent  all, 

Aslant  the  dew-bright  earth  and  colored  air 

He  looks  in  boundless  majesty  abroad, 

And  sheds  the  shining  day,  that,  burnished,  plays 

On  rocks,  and  hills,  and  towers,  and  wandering  streams, 

High  gleaming  from  afar. 

—  James  Thomson,  in  The  Seasons. 

Wit,  Humor,  and  Pathos.  —  Beauty  is  closely  related  to 
three  other  qualities  purely  mental.  These  are  mt^ 
humor,  and  pathos.  It  is  frequently  hard  to  say  whether 
a  passage  is  the  more  beautiful  or  witty,  and  beauty  and 
pathos  are  often  hard  to  distinguish. 

Wit.  —  Wit  is  the  discovery  of  such  an  unexpected 
relation  between  ideas  as  to  create  surprise  and  laughter. 
It  always  implies  a  sort  of  acumen  or  mental  superiority 
on  the  part  of  the  listener  or  reader,  and  this  is  perhaps 
the  secret  of  the  pleasure  it  conveys.  Wit  may  shade 
into  beauty  or  humor.  There  is  always  a  lightning-flash 
in  wit  as  shown  in  the  following  examples. 


Puns  393 

Hypocrisy  is  a  sort  of  homage  that  vice  pays  to  yirtue. 

—  La  Rochefoucauld. 

William  M.  Evarts'  wit  was  certainly  mother  wit.  His 
mother  was  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  first  governors  of  Con- 
necticut, who  at  one  time  entertained  General,  Washington. 
She  was  a  child  of  six  or  seven  years,  and  as  the  great  general 
was  about  to  leave  her  father's  house,  she  ran  to  the  front 
door  and  opened  it  wide  for  him.  He  bent  his  stately  form 
and  said,  "  Thank  you,  my  little  maid.  I  wish  you  a  better 
office."  Instantly  she  responded,  "  Yes,  sir,  —  to  let  you  in, 
not  to  pass  you  out." 

—  St.  Louis  Globe-Democrat 

Memory  is  that  feeling  which  steals  over  you  when  you 
listen  to  your  friend's  original  stories. 

—  Lord  Rosebery. 

Puns.  —  When   the  unexpected  and   witty   relation  is . 
not  so  much  between  ideas  as  between  words,  we  call  it  a 
pun.     Some    of   the   most   treasured   witticisms  of    our 
language  are  puns. 

When  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signing,  John 
Hancock  said,  "We  must  all  hang  together."  "You  are 
right,"  said  Ben  Franklin,  "  or  we'll  all  hang  separately." 

Sidney  Smith,  when  advised  by  his  physician  to  take  a  walk 
every  morning  upon-  an  empty  stomach,  said,  "  Whose, 
Doctor?" 

Home  Tooke,  one  of  the  great  wits  of  England,  when  asked 
why  writers  were  commonly  referred  to  as  "  the  Republic  of 
Letters,"  replied,  "  We  poor  writers  may  well  be  called  a 
republic,  for  there  is  not  a  sovereign  ^  amongst  us." 

William  M.  Evarts  was  showing  Lord  Coleridge  about  the 
grounds  of  Mcfunt  Vernon  on  one  occasion.     Talking  of  Wash- 


^  Sovereign  :  a  gold  coin  of  Great  Britain,  worth  one  pound  sterling 
($  4.86)  ;  80  called  from  tb©  likeness  of  the  monarch  on  one  side. 


304  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism 

ington's  great  physical  strength,  the  Englishman  ventured  to 
doubt  the  story  told  of  Washington's  throwing  a  silver  dollar 
froi^  bank  to  bank  across  the  Potomac  river.  Mr.  Evarts 
said,  "I  can  rfeadily  see  why  you  doubt  ii,  my  lord,  but 
you  must  remember  that  a  dollar  went  much  farther  in  those 
days." 

On  one  occasion,  Lord  Erskine  was  overtaken  on  the  street 
by  a  friend  who  introduced  to  him  a  gentleman  with  whom 
the  friend  was  walking.  This  latter  expressed  a  desire  to 
witness  an  example  of  Erskine's  wit.  "  Well,  then,  what  is 
to  be  the  subject?"  queried  Erskine.  "Oh,  the  King."  "I 
beg  your  pardon,  sir,  the  King  is  not  a  subject,"  was  the  in- 
stantaneous reply. 

—  The  New  York  Evening  Post. 

Humor.  —  When  wit  is  characterized  by  tenderness  and 
good  nature  it  becomes  humor.  Thackeray  says  that 
humor  is  a  compound  of  wit  and  love.  Wit  flashes,  while 
humor  lingers.  Shakespeare,  Hood,  Lamb,  Thackeray, 
Dickens,  Blackmore,  Kipling,  De  Morgan,  Irving,  Mark 
Twain,  Stevenson,  Bret  Harte,  Van  Dyke,  O.  Henry,  and 
Whitcomb  Riley  are  humorists. 

E.  P.  Whipple  thus  aptly  distinguishes  between  wit 
and  humor.  He  says,  "Wit  laughs  at  things.  Humor 
laughs  with  them.  Wit  lashes  external  appearances,  or 
cunningly  exaggerates  single  foibles  into  character. 
Humor  glides  into  the  heart  of  its  object,  looks  lovingly 
on  the  infirmities  it  detects,  and  represents  the  whole 
man.  Wit  is  daring,  darting,  scornful,  and  tosses  its 
analogies  in  your  face.  Humor  is  slow  and  shy,  insinuat- 
ing its  fun  into  your  heart." 

Read  the  scene  from  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  where 
Dogberry  figures  ;  or  "  the  Barmecide's  Feast,"  in  the 
Arabian  Nights  Entertainments ;  or  the  story  of  "  Sancho 
Panza  on  the  Island,"  in  Don  Quixote ;  or  "Mr.  Pickwick 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


395 


on  the  Ice,"  in  Pickwick  Papers ;  or  "The  Leaping  Frog 
of  Calaveras  County,"  from  Mark  Twain's  Sketches;  or 
"  The  Jury  Scene  in  Vanity  Fair,"  from  John  Banyan's 
Pilgrims  Progress^  for  examples  of  humor. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Alaska.  John  Sinook  and 
Family.  —  Here  is  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Igloo  Fair,  near 
the  Arctic  Circle.  He  is 
a  prominent  reindeer  man, 
owner  of  a  line  herd,  won 
by  faithful  apprenticeship 
to  the  reindeer  industry. 
He  looks,  and  is,  pros- 
perous. He  is  clad  in  a 
complete  suit  of  reindeer 
skin.  His  family  look 
comfortable  and  happy. 
The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment, through  the  Bu- 
reau of  Education,  is  doing 
all  in  its  power  to  help 
this  simple  and  honest 
people,  in  helping  them  to 
help  themselves. 


John  Sinook  and  Family. 


Study  the  Eskimo  pictures 
to  catch  something  of  how 
the  Eskimo  live,  and  think  out  a  story  of  the  journey  made  by  this 
family  on  two  sleds,  drawn  by  reindeer.  The  driver  takes  care  of 
both  sleds,  tiie  second  deer  being  attached  to  the  first  sled  by  its  halter. 
If  you  prefer,  tell  the  story  of  one  of  the  pet  animals  belonging  to  the 
children,  —  an  Eskimo  dog,  or  a  reindeer  fawn  or  baby  deer. 

Pathos.  —  When  beauty  or  humor  are  combined  with 
sadness  and  tenderness,  Vv  3  call  the  quality  pathos. 
Laughter  and  tears  do  not   lie  far  apart,  and  there  is  a 


396  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism 

very  easy  transition  from  the  humorous  to  the  pathetic. 
Almost  all  humorists  are  masters  of  pathos. 

A  fine  example  of  pathos  is  found  in  a  Christmas  Carol 
by  Charles  Dickens.  Probably  no  better  example  of 
pathos  is  found  in  literature.  To  a  Field  Mouse,,  and  To  a 
Mountain  Daisy ^  both  by  Robert  Burns,  are  fine  examples 
of  pathos.  The  Harp  That  Once  Through  TarcHs  Halls^ 
by  Thomas  Moore,  and  /  Remember^  I  Remember^  by 
Thomas  Hood,  are  excellent  illustrations  of  this  quality. 

EXERCISES 

(a)  Taste.  —  Refer  to  an  excellent  and  interesting  book  by  Arnold 
Bennett,  the  novelist  and  critic,  entitled  Literary  Taste  and  How  to 
Form  It,  in  which  he  discusses  a  number  of  points  covered  in 
this  chapter.  In  the  chapter  How  to  Read  a  Classic,  he  suggests 
that  you  begin  with  Charles  Lamb's  Dream  Children,  and  he  makes 
a  study  of  that  beautiful  short  story. 

(b)  Beauty.  —  Try  to  appreciate  the  beauty  in  the  following : 

(1)  Refer  to  a  volume  of  sketches  by  E.  V.  Lucas,  Some 
Friends  of  Mine,  in  which  occurs  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
little  things  that  have  appeared  in  recent  years.  He  tells 
that  ^n  inmate  of  the  Cook  County  Asylum,  near  Chicago, 
wrote  his  will,  which  Lucas  quotes  with  the  humorous  comment 
that  if  such  are  the  bequests  of  the  insane,  let  us  have  less 
sanity.  It  appears  in  the  volume  referred  to,  under  the  head 
of  Charles  Lounsbury. 

(2)  Refer  to  W.  B.  Yeats'  introduction  to  Rabindranath 
Tagore's  book  of  poems,  Gitanjalij  and  also  to  the  sixtieth 
number  of  that  set  of  poems,  for  a  study  of  real  beauty. 
Tagore  is  a  Hindu  writer. 

Note.  —  It  would  be  worthwhile  to  have  these  selections  read  in 
class  and  an  oral  discussion  in  connection  with  this  reading. 

(c)  Two  Beautiful  Passages.  —  Try  to  put  some  of  the  beauty  of 
the  following  passages  into  what  you  write  of  them. 

1.  The  Famous  Palace  and  Gardens  of  Alcinous.  —  Refer  to 
the  Odyssey,  book  vii,  lines  97-160,  Bryant's  translation.    This 


Criticism  397 

is  a  fine  bit  of  description,  and  a  beautiful  picture  of  the  early 
Greek  civilization.  Describe  this  palace  and  garden,  after 
mastering  the  description.  Prepare  an  outline,  and  endeavor 
to  catch  something  of  the  beauty.  Write  it  in  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  words. 

2.  Nausicaa  and  Her  Handmaidens  Play  at  Ball.  —  Odyssey ^ 
book  vi,  lines  138-268,  Bryant's  translation.  Nausicaa  and  her 
young  attendants,  having  finished  washing  their  clothes  in  the 
river,  amuse  themselves  in  a  game  of  ball,  playing  noisily  as 
girls  do.  They  wake  Ulysses,  who  was  sleeping  exhausted 
after  his  shipwreck.  The  gracious  young  princess  becomes  his 
friend  and  protector.     Write  the  story  in  one  hundred  words. 

Criticism.  —  Criticism  is  the  application  of  taste  and 
judgment  to  literary  work,  in  order  to  decide  what  is  ex- 
cellent and  what  is  faulty  in  construction. 

Criticism  is  the  estimation  of  work  by  defined  standards. 
In  its  application  to  literature  it  is  the  trying  of  whatever  is 
written. 

—  Arlo  Bates. 

Appreciation.  —  The  first  idea  in  literary  criticism  is 
appreciation,  the  exercise  of  good  taste  in  discovering 
beauty  in  literary  composition.  If  faults  are  to  be  looked 
for,  it  is  that  they  may  be  removed  as  hindrances  to  the 
expression  of  what  is  beautiful.  What  is  known  sls  fault- 
finding has  no  place  in  real  criticism. 

When  it  comes  to  rules  of  criticism,  however,  it  is  easier 
to  say  what  not  to  do,  than  what  to  do.  Taste  must  de- 
cide as  to  the  latter,  and  taste  is  founded  on  a  sense  of 
beauty.  Fortunately  this  sense  of  beauty  is  common  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  to  all  of  us.  Critical  rules  are  in- 
tended chiefly  to  show  the  faults  that  are  to  be  avoided. 

Criticizing  Your  Own  Work.  —  The  following  items  are 
suggested  as  helps  in  forming  a  critical  judgment  concern- 
ing your  own  speaking  and  writing. 


398  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism 

1.  Count  your  words.     Do  not  use  too  many. 

2.  Do  not  use  the  same  word  in  the  same  sense  too  often 
on  a  page. 

3.  Recast  every  sentence  that  does  not  please  you. 

4.  Be  on  your  guard  against  favorite  passages  in  your  own 
writing. 

5.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  first  person  in  speaking  or  writing. 

6.  Avoid  mannerisms.     They  are  objectionable. 

7.  Let  the  main  thought  have  right  of  way. 

8.  When  the  fever  of  writing  is  upon  yqu,  write  as  fast  as 
thoughts  come. 

9.  Make  your  memory  the  servant  of  your  will. 
10.  Do  not  dream  over  your  work.     Put  life  into  it. 

EXERCISE  IN  BEAUTY,  TASTE,  AND  CRITICISM 

Criticize  carefully  your  work  in  the  following  exercises : 

1.  Think  of  some  view  on  land  or  water  that  has  always 
appealed  to  you  since  you  first  saw  it.  Describe  it  in  less  than 
one  hundred  words.  Aim  at  beauty  in  your  description  of 
beauty. 

2.  Tell  something  that  has  happened  to  you ;  or  something 
that  has  been  told  in  your  home.  Tell  it  so  as  to  make  it  a 
humorous  story. 

3.  Make  a  good  pun.  Let  it  be  original.  Do  not  use  over' 
twenty-five  words. 

EXERCISE  IN  CRITICIZING  DRAMATIZATION 

Oral  or  Written  Dramatization.  — You  may  take  any  one  of  the 
following  exercises,  orally  or  in  writing.     Criticize  it  carefully. 

(a)  Two  students  may  give  a  brief  impromptu  play  or  sketch,  using 
one  of  the  scenes  given  or  suggested  below. 

(h)  You  may  write  out  a  brief  play  in  one  scene,  based  on  what  is 
here  given. 

Suggested  Scenes.  —  1.  Two  boys  plan  to.  go  fishing  to- 
morrow. Give  the  conversation  necessary  in  making  the 
arrangements. 


Exercises  in  Criticizing  Dramatization     399 

2.  A  brother  does  his  best  to  waken  Dick,  who  said  last 
night  he  wished  to  go  on  a  walking  trip  to  the  country. 

3.  Two  girls  find  it  hard  to  decide  where  to  spend  the 
afternoon.  One  wishes  to  go  to  the  Zoo,  the  other  thinks  she 
would  like  to  visit  the  Art  Museum. 

4.  Two  girls  are  on  the  beach  at  Atlantic  City.  They  dis- 
cover a  turtle,  and  endeavor  to  capture  it. 

5.  Dramatize  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

6.  Take  any  narrative  and  put  it  into  dramatic  form. 

7.  Write  an  original  scene  for  two  or  three  characters.  Put 
it  in  shape  for  presentation,  including  proper  and  definite  stage 
directions,  instructions  for  costumes,  and  all  instructions  for 
playing  it. 

(c)  Longer  Play.  —  Under  the  direction  of  the  editorial  committee^ 
let  three  or  more  students,  selected  for  their  skill  in  dramatization, 
design  a  play  for  presentation  in  public,  either  as  a  class  play,  or  for 
the  benefit  of  the  school.  Name  one  of  the  editorial  committee  as  edi- 
tor-in-chief, with  the  other  members  as  close  assistants  and  advisers. 
Let  this  draft  be  in  scenario  form,  outlining  each  scene,  but  with  no 
dialogue. 

1.  Prepare  the  first  draft  in  scenario  form.  Criticize  this 
with  the  utmost  care. 

2.  On  the  acceptance  of  the  first  draft,  carefully  rewritten, 
the  editorial  committee  may  direct  the  dramatic  writers  to  put 
in  the  dialogue.     Subject  this  to  most  careful  criticism. 

Note.  —  As  a  special  reward  for  the  work  the  editorial  committee  has 
done,  the  members  of  this  committee  may  prepare  this  play  themselves. 

Articles  of  Magazine  Length.  ^  —  Pupils  of  advanced  grade  who 
have  displayed  marked  ability  in  English  are  now  to  attempt  work 
which  is  more  definitely  the  product  of  investigation  and  study.     You 


iThis  kind  of  work  will  require  "  ability  to  gather  valuable  information 
on  the  scale  of  the  magazine  article  and  make  it  pleasantly  available  to 
others,  employing  a  working  knowledge  of  the  more  commonly  recognized 
principles  of  effectiveness,  and  of  the  rules  of  correctness."  —  From  the 
Report  of  the  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Beorganization  of  High 
School  English. 


400  Beauty,  Taste,  and  Criticism 

have  so  far  resolutely  kept  within  small  space.  Now  venture  on  ar- 
ticles of  one  to  two  thousand  words ;  and,  after  meeting  the  require- 
ments of  the  editorial  committee,  on  longer  articles. 

These  may  include  expository  outlines  or  themes ;  debate,  parlia- 
mentary usage ;  related  letters,  short  articles  on  popular  topics,  and  if 
these  are  acceptable,  gradually  increasing  their  length ;  editorials, 
scientific  descriptions,  and  short  stories.  But  in  each  case,  prune 
your  work  vigorously. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 
FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 


In  figures,  we  see  one  thing  in  another.  —  Aristotle. 


Figurative  Language.  —  Language  may  be  either  literal 
or  figurative.  If  it  is  addressed  to  the  understanding 
alone,  it  is  usually  said  to  be  literal.  If  it  seeks  to  appeal 
to  the  taste  or  to  the  imagination^  as  well  as  to  the  under- 
standing, it  is  often  figurative. 

Figurative  language  seeks  not  alone  to  convey  a  mean- 
ing, but  to  make  that  meaning  agreeable  or  forcible. 
Speaking  literally,  we  may  say  that  a  soldier  fought  fear- 
lessly. Or  we  may  say  that  he  fought  like  a  lion.  Ex- 
pressing it  still  more  vividly  we  may  say  that  he  was  a,  lion 
in  the  fight.     The  latter  two  expressions  are  figurative. 

Important  Figures.  — Of  the  many  kinds  of  figures,  the 
thrfee  most  important  are  personification^  simile^  and 
metaphor. 

Personification.  —  In  personification^  we  speak  of  inani- 
mate objects  or  of  ideas  as  having  life,  and  of  these  and 
the  lower  animals  as  possessing  the  feelings,  sympathies, 
and  intelligence  of  humanity. 

In  Gray's  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard^  one 
of  the  most  perfect  poems  in  the  language,  the  poet  says, 

Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 
Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  Honour's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  ? 
401 


402  Figures  of  Speech 

The  storied  urn^  the  animated  bust^  are  spoken  of  as  calling, 
and  the  fleeting  breath  as  unheeding,  and  as  having  deserted 
its  mansion.  Honour  is  personified,  flxittery  is  personified, 
so  is  dust^  while  the  most  beautiful  figure  is  found  in  the 
concluding  words  of  the  fourth  line  of  the  quotation. 

Milton,  in  his  twin  odes  L^ Allegro  and  II  Penseroso^ 
uses  much  personification.  A  study  of  these  matchless 
poems  is  valuable  for  the  great  amount  of  personification 
in  them. 

In  Sir  William  Jones'  beautiful  poem.  What  Constitutes 
a  State  P  (page  238)  the  last  three  lines  present  a  notable 
personification  of  law,  as  the  empress  of  the  state.  In 
Ingalls'  sonnet  on  Opportunity/,  he  personifies  his  subject. 
Refer  also  to  Coilins's  Ode  to  the  Passions,  and  to  Sidney 
Lanier's  Ballad  of  Trees  and  the  Master  for  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  personification.  English  prose  abounds  in  this 
figure. 

Simile.  —  Simile  consists  in  formally  likening  one  thing 
to  another.  It  contains  an  expressed  comparison.  In 
simile,  comparison  is  usually  indicated  by  like,  as,  such  as, 
and  words  or  phrases  of  similar  meaning. 

A  passage  of  "  Tam  O'Shanter,"  by  Robert  Burns,  has 
been  much  admired  as  furnishing  a  series  of  beautiful 
similes. 

But  pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread, 
You  touch  the  flpwer,  its  bloom  is  fled ; 
Or  like  the  snow-fall  in  the  river, 
One  moment  white,  then  lost  forever ; 
Or  like  the  rainbow's  tinted  form, 
Evanishing  amidst  the  storm  ; 
Or  like  the  Borealis  race, 
That  flits  ere  one  can  point  the  place ! 

Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Coronach"  is  well  known,  and 
beautiful. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


403 


He  is  gone  on  the  mountain,  he  is  lost  to  the  forest, 

Like  a  summer-dried  fountain,  when  our  need  was  the  sorest. 

Refer  to  Matthew  Arnold's  Sohrah  and  Rustum  for  a 
fine  simile  beginning,  "  As  when  some  hunter,"  etc. 

Refer  also  to  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner  for  beautifu?. 
similes  quaintly  expressed. 

Caution  as  to  Simile.  —  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from 
objects  too  near,  or  where  the  resemblance  is  too  obvious  ; 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  from  objects  whose  likeness  is  too 
remote.  Far-fetched  similes  annoy  rather  than  gratify  the 
taste.  Nor  should  similes  be  drawn  from  objects  with  which 
the  ordinary  reader  or  hearer  is  not  acquainted.  A  too- 
frequent  use  of  simile,  especially  in  conversation,  is  tiresome. 


=.w^ 


On  the  Greenbrier  River,  West  Virginia. 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Greenbrier  River,  "West  Virginia.  —  Happy  the  lover  of  the 
"gentle  art"  of  fishing  who  has  had  at  least  one  trial  of 


404  Figures  of  Speech 

"  Greenbrier."  It  will  be  something  to  boast  of,  and  dream 
over,  for  years  to  come.  There  are  bass  and  trout,  and  every 
other  fish  that  a  mountain  stream  might  hold. 

If  you  have  fished  in  this,  or  any  similar  stream,  tell  about  it.  Were 
you  with  a  fishing  party?  How  did  it  happen  that  you  went  along? 
Tell  about  the  camp,  if  you  camped  out ;  or  about  the  hotel,  if  you 
were  at  a  hotel.  What  luck  did  you  have  ?  What  incident  impressed 
itself  most  clearly  upon  your  mind  ? 

The  Fish  I  Didn't  Catch.  —  Tell  a  story  of  the  sort  of  luck  that  most 
of  us  have.     How  did  the  fish  get  away  ? 

Metaphor.  —  Metaphor  is  a  figure  nearly  allied  to  simile. 
It  implies  a  comparison^  without  definitely  stating  it,  and 
therefore  has  greater  force  than  simile.  One  of  the  most 
admired  metaphors  is  that  of  Lord  Byron, 

"  Man,  thou  pendulum  'twixt  a  smile  and  a  tear ! " 

Here  the  word  indicating  comparison  is  omitted,  mak- 
ing it  much  more  vivid  than  if  Bj^ron  had  said  that  man 
is  like  a  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  a  tear. 

EXERCISES  ON  IMPORTANT  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

(a)  Personification.  —  Point  out  the  use  of  personification  in  the 
following  selections: 

(1)  Heav'n  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 

—  Pope. 

(2)  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language. 

—  Bryant 

(3)  See  what  a  rent  the  envious  Casca  made  : 
Through  this,  the  well  beloved  Brutus  stabbed ; 
And,  as  he  plucked  his  cursed  steel  away, 
Mark  how  the  blood  of  Caesar  followed  it, 

As  rushing  out  of  doors,  to  be  resolved, 
If  Brutus  so  unkindly  knocked,  or  no. 

—  Shakespeare. 


Metonymy  and  Synecdoche  405 

(h)  Simile.  —  Point  out  the  similes  in  the  following  passages.  Indi- 
cate the  sign  of  comparison  used  in  each  case. 

(1)  Along  the  crowded  path  they  bore  her  now,  pure  as  the 
newly  fallen  snow,  whose  day  on  earth  had  been  as  fleeting. 

—  Charles  Dickens. 

(2)  As  we  proceeded,  the  timid  approach  of  twilight  became 
more  perceptible ;  the  intense  blue  of  the  sky  began  to  soften ; 
the  smaller  stars,  like  little  children,  went  first  to  rest. 

—  Edward  Everett. 

(3)  This  quiet  sail  is  as  a  noiseless  wing 
To  waft  me  from  distraction. 

—  Lord  Byron. 

(c)  Metaphor.  —  Point  out  the  metaphors  in  the  examples  given 
'jelow : 

(1)  He  (Hamilton)  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources 
and  abundant  streams  of  revenue  gushed  forth. 

—  Daniel  Webster. 

(2)  Bread  is  the  staff  of  life. 

—  Old  Proverb. 

(3)  All  experience  is  an  arch  wherethro' 
Gleams  that  untravell'd  world. 

—  Tennyson 

(4)  In  arms  the  Austrian  phalanx  stood, 
A  living  wall,  a  human  wood. 

—  Montgomery. 

Metonymy  and  Synecdoche.  —  These  two  figures  are 
varieties  of  metaphor.  They  occur  frequently  both  in 
common  conversation  and  in  literature  of  all  kinds,  where 
figurative  language  is  employed. 

Metonymy.  —  In  metonymy  the  image  used  to  represent 
the  object  is  closely  connected  with  it  in  some  such  rela- 
tion as  cause  and  effect^  the  container  and  the  thing  contained^ 
or  the  sign  and  the  thing  signified,  ' 


406  Figures  of  Speech 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash  ;  't  is  something,  nothing ; 
'T  was  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands. 

—  Shakespeare. 

Here  the  purse^  the  container^  stands  for  the  money  which 
the  purse  is  supposed  to  contain. 

And  Jacob  said.  My  son  shall  not  go  down  with  you ;  for 
his  brother  is  dead,  and  he  is  left  alone  :  if  mischief  befalLhim 
by  the  way  in  the  which  ye  go,  then  shall  ye  bring  down  my 
gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 

—  Genesis  xlii.  38. 

Here,  the  words  my  gray  hairs  represent  his  old  age^  and 
of  course,  himself.  The  sign  is  thus  used  for  the  thing 
signified. 

Synecdoche.  —  In  synecdoche  the  whole  is  put  for  the 
part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole  ;  a  genus  for  the  species,  or  a 
species  for  the  genus  ;  the  singular  for  the  plural,  or  the 
plural  for  the  singular  number  ;  that  is,  when  anything 
more  or  less  is  put  for  the  precise  object  meant,  it  is  an  in- 
stance of  synecdoche. 

In  the  following  selection,  Tennyson  uses  the  word  blue, 
instead  of  sky,  the  quality  of  the  sky  being  used  by  synec- 
doche for  the  sky  itself. 

I  came  and  sat 
Below  the  chestnuts  when  their  buds 
Were  glistening  in  the  breezy  blue. 

—  Tennyson. 

Synecdoche  uses  such  words  as  sail,  waves,  youth  and 
beauty,  the  bench,  and  the  bar,  to  signify  the  ships,  the 
ocean,  the  young  and  beautiful,  the  Judge  on  the  bench,  and 
the  lawyers  who  sit  within  the  bar. 

Allusion.  — Allusion,  although  a  distinct  figure,  is  closely 
relatted  to  metaphor.     Reference  is  made  to  a  noteworthy 


Classical  Story  407 

incident  in  history  or  in  classical  story,  in  the  Bible  or  in 
some  well-known  piece  of  literature.  When  well  used,  it 
adds  real  and  striking  beauty  to  speech  or  writing.  The 
allusion  in  the  following  sentence  is  from  Farrar's  Thoughts 
on  America. 

The  nation  waved  her  hand,  and  her  army  of  more  than  a 
million  sank  back  instantly  into  peaceful  civil  life,  as  the  sol- 
diers of  Roderic  Dhu  sank  back  into  the  heather. 

—  Farrar. 

EXERCISE  ON  METONYMY,  SYNECDOCHE,  AND  ALLUSION 

Study  the  following  selections  and  endeavor  to  decide  what  each 
figure  is,  and  why.  Explain  each  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  allusions,  tell 
to  what  the  reference  is,  in  each  case. 

(1)  The  fabled  birth  of  Minerva  from  the  brain  of  Jove  was 
hardly  more  sudden  or  more  perfect  than  the  financial  system 
of  the  United  States,  as  it  burst  forth  from  the  conceptions  of 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

—  Daniel  Webster. 

(2)  The  scepter,  learning y  physic  must 
All  follow  this,  and  come  to  dust. 

—  Dirge  in  Cymbeline,  Shakespeare. 

(3)  His  mate  feels  the  eggs  beneath  her  wings, 

And  the  heart  in  her  dumb  breast  flutters  and  sings. 
He  sings  to  the  wide  world  and  she  to  her  nest,  — 
In  the  nice  ear  of  Nature,  which  song  is  the  best  ? 

—  Lowell. 

(4)  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread,  till  thou 
return  unto  the  ground. 

—  Genesis  Hi.  19. 

Apostrophe.  —  This  figure  is  closely  related  to  personi- 
fication. In  apostrophe.,  the  speaker  or  writer  addresses 
some  one  not  present  as  if  he  were  present ;  or  some  great 


408  Figures  of  Speech 

man  of  the  past,  as  though  he  were  now  living.  Even 
abstract  qualities,  and  things  without  life  are  addressed  as 
though  possessing  life.  It  is  a  figure  in  frequent  use  to 
address  our  native  land  as  one  would  address  a  living 
person.     The  following  are  examples  of  apostrophe  : 

Hast  thou  a  charm  to  stay  the  morning  star 

In  his  steep  course?     So  long  he  seems  to  pause 

On  thy  bald,  awful  head,  0  sovran  Blanc ! 

The  Arve  and  Arveiron  at  thy  base 

Rave  ceaselessly";  but  thou,  most  awful  Form, 

Kisest  from  forth  thy  silent  sea  of  pines. 

How  silently ! 

—  Ode  to  Mi.  Blanc,  Samuel  T.  Coleridge. 

And  the  king  (David)  was  much  moved,  and  went  up  to  the 
chamber  over  the  gate,  and  wept ;  and  as  he  went,  thus  he 
said,  O  my  son  Absalom !  my  son,  my  son  Absalom !  would 
God  I  had  died  for  thee,  0  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son ! 

—  2  Samuel  xviii.  33. 

Interrogation.  —  This  figure  questions  the  absent  as  if 
they  were  present.  This  is  true,  even  where  the  writer 
questions  the  reader.  Its  use  promotes  vividness,  if  it  is 
sparingly  used.     The  following  is  an  example : 

0  death,  where  is  thy  sting  ?    0  grave,  where  is  thy  victory  ? 

—  1  Corinthians  xv.  55. 

Antithesis.  —  Antithesis  is  a  figure  based  upon  the  un- 
likeness  between  things.  It  is,  therefore,  the  opposite  of 
metaphor.  It  is  a  striking  figure,  where  the  objects  thus 
contrasted  are  diametrically  opposed  to  each  other.  The 
following  is  a  good  example  of  antithesis : 

Hamlet.     Look  here,  upon  this  picture,  and  on  this, 
The  coimterfeit  presentment  of  two  brothers. 
See,  what  a  grace  was  seated  on  this  brow : 
Hyperion's  curls,  the  front  of  Jove  himself ; 


Climax  409 

An  eye  like  Mars,  to  threaten  and  command ; 

A  station  like  the  herald  Mercury 

New-lighted  on  a  heaven-kissing  hill ; 

A  combination  and  a  form  indeed 

Where  every  god  did  seem  to  set  his  seal, 

To  give  the  world  assurance  of  a  man. 

This  was  your  husband.     Look  you  now,  what  follows  ? 

Here  is  your  husband,  like  a  mildew'd  ear, 

Blasting  his  wholesome  brother. 

—  Shakespeare. 

For  a  powerful  example  of  antithesis,  refer  to  Moulton's 
Modern  Reader's  Bible ^  Oration  III,  pp.  97-98. 

Climax.  —  When  a  series  of  words,  phrases,  clauses,  or 
sentences  is  so  arranged  that  each  surpasses  the  preced- 
ing one  in  intensity  or  importance,  this  arrangement  is 
called  a  climax.     The  following  is  an  example  of  climax: 

Grand,  gloomy,  and  peculiar,  he  sat  upon  the  throne  a  scep- 
tered  hermit,  wrapt  in  the  solitude  of  his  own  originality.  A 
mind,  bold,  independent,  and  decisive ;  a  will,  despotic  in  its 
dictates ;  an  energy  that  distanced  expedition ;  and  a  con- 
science, pliable  to  every  touch  of  interest,  marked  the  outlines 
of  this  extraordinary  character,  —  the  most  extraordinary,  per- 
haps, that  in  the  annals  of  this  world  ever  rose,  or  reigned,  or 
fell. 

—  Phillips. 

For  fine  examples  of  climax,  refer  to  Victor  Hugo's  de- 
scription of  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  Les  Miserahles;  to 
Moses'  farewell  orations,  the  Deuteronomy  volume  of  Moul- 
ton's  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  pp.  21-25,  and  pp.  107 -108 , 
Oration  I. 

Irony.  —  Irony  i^  a  figure  of  speech  which  says  one  thing 
and  means  another.  Lowell  says  that  it  is  a  sort  of 
verbal  boomerang,  which  while  apparently  thrown  in  one 


410  Figures  of  Speech 

direction,  strikes  in  another.  There  is  a  difference  be* 
tween  gentle  irony ^  and  what  is  termed  hitter  irony.  The 
quotation  below  from  Addison  is  in  the  gentler  form. 

There  is  another  way  of  reasoning  which  seldom  fails, 
though  it  be  of  a  quite  different  nature  from  that  I  have  last 
mentioned.  I  mean  convincing  a  man  by  ready  money,  or,  as 
it  is  ordinarily  called,  bribing  a  man  to  an  opinion.  A  man 
who  is  furnished  with  arguments  from  the  mint  will  convince 
the  antagonist  much  sooner  than  one  who  draws  them  from 
reason  and  philosophy.  Gold  is  a  wonderful  clearer  of  the 
understanding ;  it  dissipates  every  doubt  and  scruple  in  an  in- 
stant ;  accommodajbes  itself  to  the  meanest  capacities ;  silences 
the  loud  and  clamorous,  and  brings  over  the  most  obstinate  and 
inflexible. 

—  Addison. 

For  an  example  of  bitter  irony,  refer  to  Elijah's  mockery  of 
the  prophets  of  Baal,  1  Kings  xviii.  22-27, 

Hyperbole.  —  Hyperbole  resembles  metaphor,  but  the 
object  which  is  represented  is  greatly  exaggerated  in  size 
or  importance,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  It  is  very  com- 
monly used  in  conversation.  The  following  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  hyperbole.,  referring  to  Helen  of  Troy  ; 

Was  this  the  face  that  launched  a  thousand  ships, 
And  burnt  the  topless  towers  of  Ilium  ? 

—  Marlowe. 

EXERCISES  ON  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

In  the  following  exercises  try  to  let  your  use  of  figures  be  natural. 
Do  not  strain  for  effect  or  drag  in  anything  far-fetched. 

1.  Think  out  the  plot  of  a  little  story  of  simple  adventure. 
Let  there  be  two  or  three  characters.  You  may  tell  it  in  the 
first  person,  if  you  choose.  In  telling  your  story,  manage  to 
use  two  or  three  distinct  figures  of  speech. 


Exercises  on  Figures  of  Speech  411 

2.  Describe  a  visit  to  the  Zoo.  Tell  it  so  as  to  bring  in 
the  use  of  at  least  four  different  kinds  of  figures  of  speech. 

3.  Look  up  ten  examples  of  figures  of  speech  used  in  the 
College  Entrance  literature  that  you  have  studied  in  English. 
Choose  none  but  the  best  examples  of  whatever  figures  of 
speech  you  may  desire  to  bring  to  class.     Name  each  kind. 

4.  Listen  to  the  talk  of  your  classmates,  and  bring  to  class 
three  figures  of  speech,  correctly  used,  occurring  in  their  con- 
versation. Name  each  figure  there  used.  Avoid  personalities, 
and  be  careful  to  give  offense  to  no  one. 

5.  Longer  Theme.  Write  a«n  article  for  your  school  paper, 
or  for  publication  in  some  good  newspaper,  on  The  Use  of 
Figurative  Language.  The  purpose  for  which  your  article  is  pre- 
pared will  govern  its  length.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  using 
too  many  words,  if  you  expect  to  dispose  of  your  work.  The 
practical  way  would  be  to  examine  the  material  already  accepted 
by  your  paper  or  magazine,  and  govern  yourself  accordingly. 
Show  how  figurative  language  is  employed,  by  illustrations  from 
current  and  standard  literature.     Do  not  multiply  examples. 


Birthplace  of  Robert  Burns. 
The  home  of  the  Scottish  poet. 


412  Figures  of  Speech 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Birthplace  of  Robert  Burns,  Ayr,  Scotland.  —  A  certain  charm 
surrounds  the  spot  where  any  great  man  was  born.  When  we 
remember  that  Burns  made  his  way  against  obstacles,  and  rose 
to  an  eminence  which  few  have  reached,  with  no  aid  but 
that  which  his  own  modest  genius  afforded,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  we  approach  the  birthplace  of  the  honest  and  manly 
Scotch  poet  with  deep  interest. 

(a)  A  Visit  to  the  Home  of  a  Poet.  —  Let  the  class  make  a  visit  to 
the  home  of  some  poet,  or  noted  writer,  if  possible.  If  not,  and  some 
individual  member  of  the  class  can  do  so,  let  him  make  the  visit  and 
report.  Describe  the  dwelling  and  give  something  of  interest  con- 
nected with  the  life  of  the  poet  or  writer. 

(b)  An  Imaginary  Visit.  —  If  you  cannot  go  in  person,  what  is  to 
hinder  a  visit  made  in  imagination  ?  You  can  go  anywhere  on  the 
wings  of  your  fancy.  Study  the  picture,  so  as  to  be  accurate  in  your 
story,  and  tell  it  as  faithfully  as  you  can.  •  Let  your  story  be  in  keep- 
ing with  the  simplicity  which  characterizes  the  life  and  works  of 
Robert  Burns. 

(c)  A  Little  Pilgrimage.  —  An  excellent  model  for  a  little  pilgrim- 
age to  a  home,  is  found  in  Elbert  Hubbard's  Little  Journeys  to  the 
Homes  of  Famous  Men  and  Women.  He  uses  the  visit  thus  made  for 
the  purpose  of  saying  what  he  wants  to  say  about  the  one  whose 
home  he  describes.  Visit  the  former  home  of  James  Whitcomb 
Riley,  at  Indianapolis,  or  of  Jack  London,  near  Santa  Rosa,  Cali- 
fornia, in  reality,  or  in  imagination,  and  tell  about  it. 

(d)  Little  Visits.  —  In  this  same  spirit,  that  of  telling  something 
about  the  home  of  some  one  whom  you  delight  to  honor,  describe 
a  visit  to  the  home  of  George  Washington,  at  Mount  Vernon.  Or 
choose  some  one  else,  and  make  a  little  visit  to  his  home.  Tell  the 
class  about  your  visit. 

(e)  Robert  Bwns.  —  Prepare  a  speech,  ten  minutes  in  length,  on 
Robert  Burns.  Do  not  work  hastily.  Seek  an  opportunity  to  make 
your  speech  before  some  society  interested  in  this  poet.  Hand  the 
finished  manuscript  to  your  instructor  for  criticism,  but  only  after  you 
have  done  your  best. 


CHAPTER   XXX 
POETRY  AND  DRAMA 


Poetry  is  the  record  of  the  best  and  happiest  jnoments  of  the  hap- 
piest and  best  minds.  —  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley. 


Poetry.  —  So  far  in  your  study  of  effective  English  your 
attention  has  been  directed  mainly  to  prose,  although  it 
has  been  impossible  to  refrain  from  some  mention  of 
poetry,  especially  in  dealing  with  figurative  language. 
You  are  now  to  give  some  definite  thought  to  foetry. 

Difference  Between  Poetry  and  Prose.  —  Poetry  differs 
from  prose  mainly  in  three  respects :  (1)  in  its  purpose ; 
(2)  in  its  style  ,   (3)  in  its  form. 

Purpose  of  Poetry.  —  The  purpose  of  poetry  is  the  com- 
munication of  pleasure  to  the  imagination.  Blair  defines 
poetry  as  the  language  of  passion^  or  of  enlivened  imagina- 
tion^ formed  most  commonly  into  regular  numbers.  He  says 
that  the  historian,  the  orator,  and  the  philosopher  address 
themselves  to  the  understanding ;  but  that  the  primary 
aim  of  the  poet  is  to  please  and  to  move ;  and  therefore 
it  is  to  the  imagination  and  to  the  passions  that  he  speaks. 

It  is  true  that  the  poet  may  mean  to  instruct  and  to 
reform,  but  this  is  not  his  first  aim.  It  is  by  pleasing  the 
imagination  and  by  moving  the  heart  that  he  accomplishes 
this  end.  Plato,  however,  says  that  poetry  comes  nearer 
to  vital  truth  than  history. 

The  word  poet  means  maker  or  creator.  To  see  how 
appropriate  this  title  is,  we  have  only  to  recall  the  char- 

413 


414  Poetry  and  Drama 

acter  of  HamleU  out  of  the  myriad  creations  of  Shake- 
speare;  or  of  the  little  maid,  in  Wordsworth's  poem, 
We  Are  Seven.  These  are  more  alive  to  most  of  us  than 
are  the  historical  characters  of  scarcely  a  generation 
ago. 

Style  in  Poetry.  —  Style  in  poetry  will  be  treated 
under  these  lieads  :  (1)  arrangement ;  (2)  diction;  and 
(3)  imagery. 

Arrangement.  —  Poetry  is  rhythmical,  and  is  arranged 
in  lines  or  verses,  which  are  of  fixed  lengths,  composed  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  recurring  regularly. 
This  is  shown  in  the  following  passage,  written  with  the 
accented  syllable  italicized. 

"PevhapSy  in  this  neglected  .spot  is  laid 

Some  heart,  once  pregnsmt  with  ceZestial  Jire  ; 

Hands,  that  the  rod  of  e?/ipire  might  have  swayed. 
Or  waked  to  ecstas?/  the  living  lyre. 

—  Gray's  Elegy. 

Diction.  —  In  its  diction^  poetry  often  employs  words 
not  usual  in  prose.  Quaint,  old-fashioned,  obsolete  words 
occur;  picturesque  expressions,  and  epithets  of  kinds 
which  would  be  altogether  out  of  place  in  prose,  are 
frequent. 

Imagery.  —  Poetry  abounds  in  figurative  language. 
The  poet  can  use  without  limit  imagery  that  is  denied  to 
the  prose  writer. 

The  Form  of  Poetry.  —  In  discussing  the  form  of  poetry, 
it  will  be  considered  under  three  headings  :  (1)  rhythm  ; 
(2)  meter;  and  (3)  rhyme. 

Rhythm.  —  The  measured  motion  of  the  verse  which 
marks  the  time  by  the  regular  recurrence  of  the  accented 
syllables  is  called  rhythm.  Notice  how  the  rhythm  shows 
in  the  examples  following. 


Meter  415 

The  horse  bit  his  master ;  how  came  it  to  pass  ? 
He  heard  the  good  pastor  say,  "  All  flesh  is  grass  ! " 

—  Anon. 

His  house  was  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train, 
He  chid  their  wanderings,  but  relieved  their  pain  j 
The  broken  soldier,  kindly  bade  to  stay. 
Sat  by  his  fire,  and  talk'd  the  night  away ; 
Wept  o'er  his  wounds,  or  tales  of  sorrow  done. 
Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  show'd  how  fields  were  won. 
The  Deserted  Village,  Oliver  Goldsmith. 

Rhythm  in  poetry  is  as  noticeable,  when  it  is  read  aloud 
by  a  good  reader,  as  is  the  time  in  music  or  dancing. 
The  rhythmic  accent  should  coincide  with  the  accent 
given  to  the  word  when  properly  pronounced.  By  this 
means,  you  may  often  decide  as  to  the  proper  pronuncia- 
tion of  a  word,  where  it  is  used  by  a  reputable  modern 
poet. 

Meter.  —  Meter  is  the  measure  of  the  rhythm.  A  group 
of  unaccented  and  accented  syllables  forming  a  metrical 
unit  of  verse,  is  called  a  foot.  Where  the  rhythm  is 
strongly  accented,  it  may  frequently  be  marked  off  by  the 
beat  of  the  foot. 

It  is  probable  that  the  terms  foot^  measure^  stanza^  and 
verse  came  from  the  fact  that  the  rhythm  originally  ac- 
companied the  dance  in  religious  worship.  The  worshiper 
chanted  his  lines,  dancing  toward  the  altar  or  the  sacri- 
fice and  marking  the  accent  with  his  feet  naturally.  The 
distance  passed  over  in  the  dance  indicated  the  measure  of 
his  ch^nt.  When  he  had  arrived  near  the  altar  or  the 
sacrifice  he  turned  back,  hence  the  term  verse.  After 
each  movement  or  series  of  movements  to  or  from  the 
altar  he  stood,  hence  the  term  stanza. 

Feet  in  English  Poetry.  —  There  are  four  principal  feet 


416  Poetry  and  Drama 

in  English  poetry.  Two  of  these  are  two-syllabled,  the 
iambus  and  the  trochee;  and  two  are  three-syllabled,  the 
dactyl  and  the  anapest.     These  are  thus  defined. 

1.  The  iambus  consists  of  an  unaccented,  followed  by 
an  accented  syllable,  as  denote'.  This  is  the  favorite  foot 
in  English. 

2.  The  trochee  consists  of  an  accented,  followed  by  an 
unaccented  syllable,  as  com'ing. 

3.  The  dactyl  has  an  accented  syllable,  followed  by 
two  unaccented  syllables,  as  mod' if y. 

4.  The  anapest  consists  of  two  unaccented  syllables, 
followed  by  one  accented,  as  contradict' . 

Scanning  in  English  Poetry.  —  The  measuring  off  of  the 
feet  in  poetry  is  called  scanning.  You  should  do  enough 
scanning  to  make  yourself  familiar  with  the  meter,  and 
scan  both  orally  and  in  writing. 

Meter  Names.  —  Meter  is  doubly  named^  first  from  the 
kind  of  foot ;  and  secondly,  from  the  number  of  feet  in 
the  line.  A  line  of  one  iambic  foot  is  called  iambic  mo- 
nometer ;  of  two,  iambic  dimeter ;  of  three,  iambic  trim- 
eter; of  four,  iambic  tetrameter;  of  five,  iambic  pen- 
tameter; and  a  line  of  six  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic 
hexametei*. 

Examples  of  Iambic  Verse.  —  The  following  are  exam- 
ples of  the  use  of  iambic  feet. 

I  know  a  maiden  fair  to  see, 

Take  care ! 
She  can  both  false  and  friendly  be, 

Beware  I    Beware ! 

—  Longfellow. 

The  first  and  third  lines  of  this  selection  are  in  iambic 
tetrameter ;  the  second  line  is  iambic  monometer ;  while 
the  fourth  line  is  iambic  dimeter. 


[Examples  of  Trochaic  Verse  417 

In  the  following  selection  from  As  You  Like  It^  the 
meter  is  the  usual  Shakespearean  line,  iambic  pentameter, 

Duke.  Are  not  these  woods 

More  free  from  peril  than  the  envious  court  ? 
Here  feel  we  but  the  penalty  of  Adam,  — 
The  seasons'  difference,  —  as,  the  icy  fang 
And  churlish  chiding  of  the  Winter's  wind  — 
Which  when  it  bites,  and  blows  upon  my  body, 
Even  till  I  shrink  with  cold,  I  smile,  and  say. 
This  is  no  flattery  —  these  are  the  counsellors 
That  feelingly  persuade  me  what  I  am. 

—  Shakespeare. 

Examples  of  Trochaic  Verse.  —  The  following  selection 
from  The  Psalm  of  Life  shows  the  first  syllable  accented, 
and  the  second  syllable  unaccented. 

Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 

And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
i^oo^prints  in  the  sands  of  tiine. 

—  Longfellow. 

In  the  second  and  fourth  lines,  the  final  foot  lacks  the 
unaccented  syllable,  giving  a  little  heavier  stroke  to  that 
foot.  The  verse  is  trochaic  tetrameter.  The  next  selec- 
tion is  from  The  Witches'  Song  in  Macbeth. 

Double,  double. 

Toil  and  trouble ; 
Fire  burn 

And  ca^ddTon  bubble ! 

—  Shakespeare. 

Examples  of  Dactylic  Verse.  —  The  four  lines  quoted 
on  the  next  page  are  from  The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade, 
and  are  in  dactylic  dimeter.  The  first  syllable  is  accented, 
and  the  next  two  unaccented. 


418  Poetry  and  Drama 

Cannon  to  right  of  them, 
Cannon  to  left  of  them, 
Caraion  in  front  of  them, 
FoHeyed  and  i^i^ndered. 


—  Tennyson. 


The  next  selection  is  from  the  introduction  to  Evange- 
line^ and  is  in  the  same  meter.  Its  prevailing  verse  is 
dactylic  hexameter. 

This  is  the  /orest  primeval.     The  m^^rmuring  pines  and  the 

hemlocks, 
Searched  with  moss,  and  in  gfarments  green,  indis^mci  in  the 

^w?light, 
Stand  like  Druids  of  eld,  with  voices  sad  and  prop/iedc, 
Stand  like  harpers  hoar,  with  beards  that  rest  on  their  bosoms. 
Loud  from  its  rocky  caverns,  the  deep-voiced  neighboring  ocean 
Speaks,  and  in  accents  disconsolate  answers  the  wail  of  the 

forest. 

—  Longfellow. 

Variations.  —  Instead  of  one  accented  and  two  unac- 
cented syllables,  dactylic  poetry  often  uses  a  foot  contain- 
ing two  accented  syllables.  This  is  known  as  a  spondee. 
It  has  the  effect  of  slowing  up  the  rhythm,  as  you  will 
notice  in  some  of  the  lines  of  the  above  example. 

Example  of  Anapestic  Meter.  —  This  example  taken  from 
Alexander  Selkirk,  by  Cowper,  illustrates  the  use  of  the 
anapest  in  verse.  Two  unaccented  syllables  are  followed 
b}^  an  accented  syllable.  In  the  story  of  this  poem,  Sel- 
kirk was  cast  ashore  on  a  desert  island. 

I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

My  right  there  is  no7ie  to  dispiUe; 

From  the  center  all  round  to  the  sea 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

O  iS^oZitude  !  ivhere  are  the  charms 
That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face  f 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


419 


Better  dicell  in  the  midst  of  alarms 
Than  reign  in  this  horrible  place. 

—  William  Cowper. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Moonlight  on  Grand  Lake 

—  What  is  the  charm 
of  moonlight  upon  the 
water?  The  unromantic 
and  the  practical  feel  it  in 
spite  of  themselves.  Did 
it  ever  fall  more  quietly 
than  in  this  scene  ? 

1.  Tell  some  story  suited 
to  this  scene.  AVere  you 
alone,  in  your  boat,  or  stand- 
ing by  the  shore  ?  Or  had  you 
stolen  away  from  camp,  while 
your  companions  slept? 

2.  What  was  that  f  Was  it 
the  splash  of  a  great  fish, 
leaping  after  its  prey  ?  Was 
it  the  dip  of  the  paddle,  as 
some  Indian  guides  his  light 
canoe  ?  That  takes  you 
back  to  pioneer  days,  or 
even  earlier  than  that.  Or 
was  it  the  echo  of  some 
deed  done  in  the  dark,  which 
its  perpetrator  seeks  to  hide 
by  throwing  the  evidence  of 
his  guilt  into  the  still  waters 
of  the  lake?  What  was  it? 
Tell  your  story  your  own 
way. 

Three  Irregular  Feet.  —  There  are  three  irregular  feet, 
vvliich  may  be  regarded  as  substitutes  for  regular  feet. 
They  do  not  occur  except  as  occasional  lines,  and  they  are 


Moonlight  on  Grand  Lake,  Rocky  Moun- 
tain National  Park. 


420  Poetry  and  Drama 

used  for  variety.  They  are  the  spondee^  the  pyrrhic^  and 
the  amphibrach.  The  spondee  consists  of  two  accented 
syllables;  the  pyrrhic,  of  two  unaccented  syllables;  and 
the  amphibrach  of  an  unaccented,  an  accented,  and  an 
unaccented  syllable,  as  in  the  word  vedeemeT.  The 
following  lines  are  examples  of  each. 

1.  Spondaic. 

And  ten  low  words  oft  creep  in  one  dull  line. 

—  Pope. 

Low  words,  is  a  spondee ;  and  dull  line,  is  a  spondee. 

The  name  spondee  is  taken  from  the  songs  sung  while 
pouring  forth  a  libation  in  the  old  heathen  worship, 
the  libation  being  poured  slowly  to  give  dignity  to  the 
effect.  The  use  of  the  spondee  gives  a  slower  movement 
to  the  line. 

2.  Pyrrhic. 

Life  is  so  full  of  misery. 

The  scheme  of  this  line  is  accented,  unaccented,  for  the 
first  foot ;  unaccented,  accented,  for  the  second  and  third 
feet;  and  two  unaccented  syllables,  making  it  pyrrhic,  for 
the  last  foot. 

3.  Amphibrachic. 

The  waters  Sive  flashing, 
The  white  hail  is  dashing, 

etc. 

This  is  amphibrachic  dimeter,  the  foot  being  unaccented, 
accented,  unaccented. 

Our  Maker,  Defender,  Redeemer,  and  Friend. 

—  Grant. 

This  is  amphibrachic  for  the  first  three  feet,  the  last 
foot  being  iambic. 


Eflfect  of  Rhythm  421 

Effect  of  Rhythm.  —  The  effect  of  many  long  syllables 
is  to  produce  slow  and  stately  measures,  or  sad  and 
mournful  effects.  Where  the  shorter  syllables  are  used 
they  give  alacrity  and  liveliness  to  the  rhythm  and  to 
the  poetry. 

To  illustrate  this,  Professon  Wendell  quotes  the  lines  by 
Wordsworth  on  The  Skylark^  in  contrast  with  Shelley's 
lines  on  The  Skylark^  to  show  the  effects  of  the  slower 
rhythm  in  Wordsworth,  and  the  livelier  movement  in 
Shelley. 

Ethereal  minstrel !  pilgrim  of  the  sky ! 
.Dost  thou  despise  the  earth,  whete  cares  abound ! 
Or  while  the  wings  aspire,  are  heart  and  eye 
Both  with  thy  nest  upon  the  dewy  ground  — 
Thy  nest,  which  thou  canst  drop  into  at  will, 
Those  quivering  wings  composed,  that  music  still ! 

—  Wordsworth. 

Hail  to  thee,  blithe  spirit ! 

Bird  thou  never  wert. 
That  from  heaven,  or  near  it, 

Pourest  thy  full  heart 
In  profuse  strains  of  unpremeditated  art ! 

—  Shelley. 

In  the  long  words  and  the  slow  measure  of  Words- 
worth's first  line  — 

Ethereal  minstrel !  pilgrim  of  the  sky ! 

there  is  something  that  keeps  the  mind  where  the  con- 
templative poet  would  have  it,  —  down  on  earth.  In  the 
short,  ecstatic  words  of  Shelley's  first  line  — 

Hail  to  thee,  blithe  spirit ! 

there  is  something  that  lifts  the  mind  straight  away  from 
all  things  earthly.     Change  a  word  in  either  of  these, 


422  Poetry  and  Drama 

says  Wendell,  change  even  a  syllable  or  letter,  and  some* 
thing  is  lost. 

Rests.  —  In  longer  lines,  and  occasionally  in  shorter 
lines,  there  occurs  a  pause  or  rest^  usually  corresponding 
with  the  thought.  This  is  called  the  ccesura.  It  occurs 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  and  in  verses  of  six  feet,  usually  be- 
tween the  syllables  of  the  third  foot.  Note  the  csesural 
pause  in  the  following  lines,  one  from  Tennyson,  the  other 
from  Longfellow. 

You  must  wake  and  call  me  early,  call  me  early,  mother  dear, 

This  is  the  forest  primeval;   the  murmuring  pines  and  the 
hemlocks. 

In  the  first  instance,  the  caesural  pause  falls  after  early  ; 
and  in  the  other,  it  is  found  after  'primeval. 

In  the  following  verses  of  five  feet,  the  caesura  falls 
respectively  after  the  words  serve.,  thyself.,  and  mankind. 

They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait. 

—  Milton's  Sonnet  on  his  Blindness. 

Know  then  thyself,  presume  not  God  to  scan, 
The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. 

—  Pope's  Essay  on  Man. 

When  the  caesura  is  well  managed  it  produces  a  fine 
effect,  and  is  considered  an  element  of  great  beauty. 

Rhyme.  —  Rhyme  is  the  regular  recurrence  of  similar 
sounds,  generally  at  the  end  of  certain  lines,  but  often 
found  in  the  middle  of  the  lines.  The  interval  between 
the  rhymes  varies  in  length  in  different  poems,  but  that 
interval  having  been  established  in  a  poem,  it  is  expected 
that  it  will  be  followed  throughout  that  poem. 

The  rhymes  should  be  real  rhymes,  that  is,  real  to  the 
ear  and  not  merely  to  the  eye.  Thus,  breath  and  beneath 
look  alike,  but  they  do  not  sound  alike,  and  hence  do  not 


Blank  Verse  423 

rhyme.  But  breath  and  death  are  good  rhymes.  Study 
the  rliymes  in  the  poetical  selections  already  given,  as  well 
as  in  the  following : 

The  night  has  a  thousand  eyes, 

And  the  day  but  one ; 
Yet  the  light  of  the  bright  world  dies 

With  the  dying  sun. 
The  mind  has  a  thousand  eyes, 

And  the  heart  but  one ; 
Yet  the  light  of  a  whole  life  dies 

When  love  is  done. 

—  F.  W.  Bourdillon. 

Take  her  up  tenderly, 

Lift  her  with  care  : 

Fashioned  so  -slenderly,  ^ 

Young,  and  so  fair ! 

Look  at  her  garments 
Clinging  like  cerements. 
Whilst  the  wave  constantly 
Drips  from  her  clothing ; 
Take  her  up  instantly. 
Loving,  not  loathing,  — 

—  The  Bridge  of  Sighs,  Thomas  Hood. 

The  little  irregularities  of  rhyme  of  this  latter  selection, 
in  the  second  stanza,  are  studied  and  not  accidental,  and 
produce  an  impression  of  remarkable  beauty. 

Blank  Verse.  —  Continuous  verse  without  rhyme, 
written  in  heroic  measure,  that  is  iambic  pentameter,  is 
called  blank  verse.  It  is  the  most  dignified  measure  in 
English  and  is  found  in  epic  and  dramatic  poetry.  There 
are  a  few  instances  of  poetry  without  rhyme  in  other  meas- 
ures than  iambic  pentameter,  e.g.  Longfellow's  Evangeline. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  blank  verse. 


424  Poetry  and  Drama 

Portia.     The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained  ; 
It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 
Upon  the  place  beneath.     It  is  twice  blest ; 
It  blesseth  him  that  gives  and  him  that  takes. 
'Tis  mightiest  in  the  mightiest ;  it  becomes 
The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown. 

—  The  Merchant  of  Venice^  Shakespeare. 

Kinds  of  Poetry.  —  There  are  three  main  divisions  of 
poetry  :  (1)  the  epic;  (2)  the  lyric;  and  (3)  the  dra- 
matic. To  these  may  be  added  three  more,  (4)  didactic; 
(5)  satirical ;  and  (6)  pastoral. 

Epic  Poetry.  —  Epic  poetry  is  extended  narrative  in 
noble  and  stately  verse,  dealing  with  the  deeds  of  the 
heroes,  gods,  and  demi-gods  who  took  part  in  the  great 
events  of  the  age  before  history  begins,  the  age  of  fable. 
It  is  universally  agreed  that  these  original  epics  came 
down  from  the  songs  of  the  bards  and  minstrels  of  the 
olden  time,  being  put  into  their  present  form  by  some 
great  poet.  This  seems  to  be  true  of  (1)  the  Iliad  and 
(2)  the  Odyssey  of  Homer  ;  and  of  (3)  the  Nihelungenlied 
and  (4)  the  Beowulf. 

Virgil  founded  his  (5)  Mneid  upon  Homer's  poem. 
Homer  gives  the  Grecian  side  of  the  fall  of  Troy,  tell- 
ing of  Achilles  and  of  Ulysses ;  Virgil  traces  the  story  of 
-^neas,  describing  him  as  the  founder  of  the  Roman  race. 
The  .Mneid  follows  the  traditions  and  meter  of  Homer,  but 
has  a  refinement  and  beauty  of  its  own. 

Dante,  in  his  (6)  Divine  Comedy^  and  Milton,  in  his  (7) 
Paradise  Lost,  both  follow  Virgil,  as  he  followed  his  great 
master  and  teacher.  Homer.  These  seven  epics  consti- 
tute the  great  epic  poems  of  all  literature. 

While  not  of  highest  rank,  the  Kalevala.,  a  Finnish  poem, 
translated  by  Crawford  ;  the  Death  of  Roland,  translated 


Metrical  Romances  425 

by  Gautier;  Macpherson's  Ossian;  and  Longfellow's 
Hiaivatha^  are  worthy  of  mention  as  possessing  some  of 
the  qualities  demanded  of  the  epic  poem. 

Metrical  Romances.  —  Metrical  Romances  are  short  epics. 
They  are  narrative  poems  of  great  beauty,  but  of  less  dig- 
nity than  the  epic.  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake  and  Mar- 
mion;  Moore's  Lalla  Rookh;  and  lyongfellow's  Evangeline^ 
are  good  examples.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  is  also  an 
example  of  this  form  of  poetic  story. 

Metrical  Tales.  —  Still  simpler  and  shorter  than  the 
Metrical  Romances  are  the  Metrical  Tales^  which  corre- 
spond to  the  short  story  in  prose.  Some  of  the  best  of 
them  are  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales,  Longfellow's  Tales 
of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden,  and  Lowell's 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 

To  this  list  may  be  added  Tarn  O'Shanter,  by  Robert  Burns, 
the  Corsair,  by  Lord  Byron,  the  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  by 
Browning,  John  Gilpin's  Ride,  by  Cowper,  High  Tide  on  the 
Coast  of  Lincolnshire,  by  Jean  Ingelow,  and  Poe's  Raven. 

Idylls.  —  Idylls  are  narrative  poems  presenting  chivalric 
life,  and  appealing  to  the  highest  emotions.  Tennyson's 
Idylls. of  the  King  furnish  a  good  example. 

The  Ballad.  —  This  form  of  poetic  narrative  tells  its 
story  briefly  but  strikingly.  The  old  ballads  have  come 
down  to  us  from  the  old  singers,  as  did  the  epic  poems. 
They  are  noted  for  their  strong  idiomatic  English.  The 
ballads  of  Chevy  Chase,  Lord  Lovell,  the  Robin  Hood 
Ballads,  and  the  Battle  of  Maiden,  are  all  noted. 

Following  this  form,  which  is  very  effective  for  story- 
telling, the  modern  ballad  is  a  distinct  feature  of  modern 
English.  Among  the  best  of  these  modern  ballads  are 
Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  Campbell's  The  Battle 
of  the  Baltic,  Coleridge's  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner^ 
Whittier's  Maud  Muller,  Gilbert's  Ballads,  and  Kipling's 


426  Poetry  and  Drama 

Barrack  Room  Ballads.  To  this  list  may  be  added  Long- 
fellow's Wreck  of  the  Hesperus^  and  Browning's  HervS  RieL 

Lyric  Poetry.  —  This  kind  of  poetry  owes  its  name  to 
the  fact  that  it  was  originally  sung  to  the  accompaniment 
of  the  lyre,  as  the  epic  was  to  that  of  the  harp.  It  deals 
primarily  with  the  feelings  and  emotions.  Songs^  o§,e%^ 
elegies.,  and  sonnets  are  forms  of  lyric  poetry. 

Songs.  —  Songs  are  short  poems  intended  to  be  sung. 
They  are  religious  or  secular.  Jesus.,  Lover  of  My  Soul.,  and 
Lead.,  Kindly  Lights  are  sacred  songs  or  hymns.  Annie 
Laurie  and  The  Last  Rose  of  Summer  are  songs  of  sentiment. 

Odes. — Odes  express  exalted  emotion.  They  are 
higher  in  form  than  songs.  Wordsworth's  Intimations  of 
Immortality.,  Dryden's  A  Song  for  Saint  Cecilia's  Day^ 
Keats'  Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn.,  Shelley's  To  a  Skylark.,  are 
all  of  high  rank  as  odes. 

Elegies.  —  When  lyrics  are  characterized  by  deep  grief 
or  melancholy,  they  are  called  elegies.  Gray's  Elegy  in  a 
Country  Churchyard.,  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam^  and 
Milton's  LycidaSy  all  rank  high  as  elegies. 

Sonnets.  —  A  sonnet  is  a  complete  lyric  poem  of  four- 
teen lines.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  things  in  our 
language  are  sonnets.  The  most  notable  example  is  prob- 
ably Milton's  Sonnet  on  His  Blindness.  Shakespeare's 
sonnets  are  all  beautiful.  Note  especially  Sonnet  XXIX, 
Look  up,  also,  Wordsworth's  sonnet  in  praise  of  the  son- 
net, "  Scorn  not  the  sonnet,"  etc. 

Didactic  Poetry.  —  When  the  aim  of  poetry,  or  of  writ- 
ing in  poetic  form,  is  to  teach,  rather  than  to  please,  it  is 
said  to  be  didactic  poetry.  This  is  not  the  highest  order 
of  poetry.  An  instance  of  this  form  of  poetry  or  writing 
is  Pope's  Essay  on  Man.  Wordsworth's  Excursion^  while 
somewhat  more  poetic  in  its  nature,  is  didactic.  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queene  is  poetic,  and  at  the  same  time  didactic. 


Tragedy  427 

Satirical  Poetry. — When  the  poet  seeks  to  attack  men, 
or  to  belittle  events  ;  or  to  expose  vice  or  folly;  or  to 
effect  social  or  political  reforms  by  satire,  the  poetry  is 
called  satirical.  It  is  not  so  much  in  use  now  as  formerly, 
on  account  of  the  opportunities  for  prose  writers  in  news- 
papers and  magazines.  Johnson's  London^  and  Byron's 
English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers^  are  examples  of 
satirical  poetry. 

Pastoral  Poetry.  — Pastoral  poetry  deals  more  especially 
with  nature.  Some  writers  follow  the  style  of  the  classi- 
cal writers,  as  is  the  case  with  Allan  Ramsay's  The  Gentle 
Shepherd  ;  but  others  choose  their  own  style,  and  pastoral 
poetry  is  found  in  great  variety  and  beauty.  Burns's  The 
Cotter  s  Saturday  Night  is  a  fine  example  of  pastoral  poetry. 

Dramatic  Poetry.  —  Differing  from  all  the  forms  of 
poetry  thus  far  named,  dramatic  poetry  has  a  style  and 
manner  of  its  own.  It  is  designed  to  be  acted  upon  the 
stage,  and  it  is  written  to  be  spoken.  Dramatic  poetry  is 
characterized  by  great  variety,  depicting  all  the  passions 
of  humanity.  The  divisions  of  the  drama  are: 
(1)  tragedy ;  (2)  comedy ;  and  (3)  history. 

Tragedy.  —  Tragedy  deals  with  the  deep  passions  of  the 
human  heart.  The  end  of  tragedy  is  calamity  and  death 
in  some  form  or  other.  In  order  to  relieve  the  mind,  and 
prepare  it  for  the  greatest  issues  and  climaxes  of  the  play, 
comedy  is  frequently  introduced  into  the  noblest  tragedies. 
This  is  the  case  in  Hamlet^  where  the  grave  diggers'  scene 
is  brought  in  to  afford  a  breathing-space,  and  relieve  the 
over-wrought  feelings  of  the  spectators  of  the  play. 

Some  of  the  greatest  plays  of  Shakespeare  are  trag- 
edies :  Hamlet^  Macbeth^  King  Lear^  Romeo  and  Juliet^  An- 
tony and  Cleopatra. 

Comedy.  —  Comedy  is  light  and  humorous,  its  purpose 
being  to  amuse.     Comedies  study  human  life,  often  with 


428  Poetry  and  Drama 

the  finest  lessons  as  their  concealed  purpose,  but  always 
with  amusement  as  their  most  important  feature.  Shake- 
speare's As  You  Like  It^  Twelfth  Nighty  The  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream^  Goldsmith's  She  Stoops  to  Conquer^  and 
Sheridan's  Bivals,  are  excellent  comedies. 

Farces.  —  Farces  are  short  comedies  whose  aim  is  to 
produce  laughter.  They  employ  ridiculous  situations  and 
the  characters  are  generally  exaggerated. 

Melodramas.  —  Where  a  drama  abounds  in  romantic  senti- 
ment and  agonizing  situations,  it  is  said  to  be  melodramatic. 
Such  dramas  sometimes  include  a  musical  accompaniment 
in  those  parts  which  are  especially  thrilling  or  pathetic. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Multnomah  Falls.  —  What  a  fearful  leap  the  waters  take  at 
Multnomah  Falls  on  the  Columbia!  This  picture  is  from  a 
snapshot  taken  by  one  of  the  members  of  an  automobile  party, 
touring  in  that  vicinity.  Note  the  branches  of  some  mighty 
tree,  outlined  against  the  falls.  What  a  picture  for  your 
vacation  album ! 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  the  taking  of  the  picture ;  or  if  you  prefer,  tell 
the  story  of  the  picture  itself.  Imagine  yourself  within  hearing  of 
thfe  cataract,  the  fall  of  whose  waters  jars  the  mountain  walls. 

2.  Description  of  Some  Waterfall.  —  It  may  be  you  know  some 
waterfall.     Describe  it. 

3.  A  Visit  to  Niagara.  —  If  you  have  visited  Niagara  Falls,  give  an 
account  orally  of  your  visit.  Tell  some  of  the  legends  connected 
with  the  Falls. 

Masks.  — Originally  masks  were  represented  by  masked 
characters  who  sang  and  danced.  At  first,  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses,  with  some  supernatural  characters,  were 
introduced.  Milton's  Oomus  is  the  best  example  in 
English. 

Operas.  —  Dramas  in  which  music  predominates,  the 
speakers  singing  most  of   their  parts,  are  called   operas. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


429 


Multnomah  Falls. 
Columbia  River,  Oregon. 


430 


Poetry  and  Drama 


In  grand  opera^  music  of  the  highest  grade,  and  themes 
taken  from  heroic  legends  or  romances,  are  used. 

History.  —  The  dramatist  frequently  portrays  historical 
characters,  and  in  many  instances  the  personages  thus 
described  in  a  historical  play  are  more  clearly  understood 
by  one  who  sees  the  play,  than  if  he  were  reading 
history.  This  is  true  of  Shakespeare's  Julius  Ccesar  and 
Henry  F. 

In  comedies  and  histories,  this  dramatist  often  mingles 
prose  with  poetry,  but  in  times  of  a  great  crisis  in  the 
play,  he  almost  always  resorts  to  poetry.  In  the  strictly 
modern  plays,  prose  is  more  frequently  used  than  poetry. 
In  most  instances  now,  poetry  does  not  enter  at  all  into 
the  speeches  of  the  play.  But  in  the  higher  types  of  the 
play,  poetry  is  used,  perhaps  because  of  the  fact  that  in 
poetry  so  much  can  be  said  in  so  few  words. 


Lake  Como,  Italy. 


Spenserian  Stanza  431 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Lake  Como,  Italy.  —  This  region  has  been  a  favorite  resort  of 
pleasure  seekers  since  old  Koman  times.  Its  shores  are  bor- 
dered by  splendid  villas,  with  gardens,  terraces,  and  vineyards. 

1.  Tell  a  little  story  of  a  visit  made  by  you  to  this  villa.  Make  it 
a  story  that  could  easily  happen  in  such  a  beautiful  place  as  this. 

2.  A  Travel  Letter.  —  You  are  away  from  home.  It  occurs  to  you 
that  your  friends  at  home  might  be  glad  to  read  something  of  what 
you  see,  and  of  your  experiences  as  a  traveler.     Write  such  a  letter. 

The  Stanza.  —  Where  the  verse  is  not  continuous,  as  in 
Shakespeare's  plays,  and  in  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  it  is 
divided  into  groups,  corresponding  to  paragraphs  in  prose, 
and  called  stanzas. 

Kinds  of  Stanzas.  —  Couplets  and  triplets  contain  two 
and  three  lines,  respectively. 

Quatrains.  —  Stanzas  of  four  lines  are  called  quatrains. 
The  lines  may  rhyme  two  and  two ;  that  is,  the  first  and 
second,  and  the  third  and  fourth ;  or  alternately,  the  first 
and  third,  and  the  second  and  fourth  ;  or  the  first  and 
third  may/ not  rhyme,  while  the  second  and  fourth  rhyme. 

A  quatrain  consisting  of  iambic  pentameter,  the  alternate 
lines  rhyming,  is  called  elegiac  stanza^  Gray's  Elegy  being 
in  that  form. 

Tennysonian  stanza  consists  of  a  quatrain  of  iambic  tet- 
rameter, the  first  line  rhyming  with  the  fourth,  and  the 
second  and  third  rhyming. 

Five-  and  six-line  stanzas  are  frequently  found,  generally 
rhyming  alternately. 

Spenserian  Stanza.  —  Spenserian  stanza  consists  of  nine 
lines,  the  first  eight  being  iambic  pentameter,  and  the 
ninth  being  iambic  hexameter  ;  the  first  and  third  rhyme 
together  ;  so  do  the  sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth  ;  and  the 
second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh.  It  derives  its  name 
from  its  use  by  Spenser  in  The  Faerie  Queene, 


432  Poetry  and  Drama 

Koll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean  —  roll ! 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain ; 
Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin  —  his  control 
Stops  with  the  shore ;  —  upon  the  watery  plain 
The  wrecks  are  all  thy  deed,  nor  doth  remain 
A  shadow  of  man's  ravage,  save  his  own, 
When,  for  a  moment,  like  a  drop  of  rain, 
He  sinks  into  thy  depths  with  bubbling  groan, 
Without  a  grave,  unknell'd,  uncoffin'd,  and  unknown. 

—  CJiilde  Harold,  Byron. 

EXERCISES  IN  POETRY  AND  THE  DRAMA 

(a)  Selections  for  Study.  —  Scanning,  Determination  of  Meters, 
Style,  and  Form. 

Determine  the  meter,  the  style  of  poetry  in  which  each  is  written ; 
and  indicate  in  each  instance  what  you  consider  to  be  notable 
lines  in  the  selections  given  below. 

(1)  Let  us  with  a  gladsome  mind,    • 
Praise  the  Lord,  for  he  is  kind ; 

For  his  mercies  aye  endure, 
Ever  faithful,  ever  sure. 

—  Psalm  cxxxvi,  John  Milton. 

(2)  Here  lies  our  sovereign  lord  the  king. 

Whose  word  no  man  relies  on : 
Who  never  said  a  foolish  thing 
Nor  ever  did  a  wise  one. 

—  Epigram  ^  on  Charles  II,  Rochester. 

(3)  Till  said  to  Tweed : 
Though  ye  rin  wi'  speed, 

And  I  rin  slaw, 

Whar  ye  droon  ae  man, 
I  droon  twa. 

—  Lines  quoted  by  Ruskin. 

1  To  this  epigram  of  Rochester's,  the  witty  King  Charles  is  said  to  have 
replied  that  it  was  quite  true,  as  his  sayings  were  all  his  own,  while  his 
acts  were  those  of  his  ministers  I 


Exercises  in  Poetry  and  the  Drama      433 

(4)  A  knight  there  was,  and  that  a  worthy  man, 

That  from  the  tyme  that  he  first  began 
To  ryden  out,  he  lovede  chyvalrie, 
Trouthe  and  honour,  fredom  and  curteisie. 
Ful  worthi  was  he  in  his  lordes  werre, 
And  thereto  hadde  he  riden,  noman  ferre, 
As  wel  in  Cristendom  as  in  heathenesse. 
And  evere  honoured  for  his  worthinesse. 

—  Geoffrey  Chaucer. 

(6)  Thus  said  Hiawatha,  walking 

In  the  solitary  forest, 
Pondering,  musing  in  the  forest, 
On  the  welfare  of  his  people. 

From  his  pouch  he  took  his  colors, 
Took  his  paints  of  different  colors. 
On  the  smooth  bark  of  a  birch-tree 
Painted  many  shapes  and  figures. 
Wonderful  and  mystic  figures, 
And  each  figure  had  a  meaning, 
Each  some  word  or  thought  suggested. 

—  Picture-Writing,  Hiawatha,  xiv,  Longfellow. 

(6)    0  the  days  gone  by  !     0  the  days  gone  by  ! 

The  music  of  the  laughing  lip,  the  luster  of  the  eye ; 
The  childish  faith  in  fairies,  and  Aladdin's  magic  ring — • 
The  simple,  soul-reposing,  glad  belief  in  everything,  — 
When  life  was  like  a  story,  holding  neither  sob  nor  sigh, 
In  the  golden  olden  glory  of  the  days  gone  by. 

—  James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

(6)  Exercises  in  Poetic  Forms.  —  Try  one  or  more  of  the  following : 

1.  Advertising  writers  depend  much  on  the  pleasing  jingles 
of  Mother  Goose  in  preparing  attractive  advertisements.  Do 
not  parody  either  here  or  in  any  exercises  you  are  called  upon 
to  write,  but  study  carefully  some  one  of  these  rhymes  until 
the  rhythm  "sings   itself"  into  your  mind.     Then   write  a 


434  Poetry  and  Drama 

humorous  little  piece  of  rhyme  in  that  style,  in  eight  or  ten 
lines. 

2.  Venture  on  a  school  song.  Select  some  song  that  is  a 
high  school  favorite,  and  study  its  measure  until,  so  to  speak, 
it  takes  possession  of  your  mind  and  fancy  for  the  time. 
Then  write  a  song  of  two  or  three  stanzas  in  that  meter. 
Scan  it  carefully. 

3.  Prepare  several  Jingles  in  whatever  form  appeals  most 
to  you,  for  the  amusement  of  some  little  child.  Model  it  on 
some  approved  child  verses.  Study,  for  instance,  The  Child's 
Garden  of  Verse,  by  Stevenson.  Or  look  up  the  excellent 
books  of  child  verse  by  James  Whitcomb  Riley  and  Eugene 
Field.  Test  your  work  severely  as  to  the  points  to  be  in- 
sisted upon  in  judging  verse. 

4.  Select  one  or  two  good  limericks.  Read  them  over  and 
over  until  they  fasten  their  rhythm  in  your  mind.  Then 
write  a  limerick.     Make  it  worth  while. 

5.  Try  advertising  writing  in  rhyme.  Take  a  good  maga- 
zine, select  the  best  piece  of  advertising  work  there.  Study 
its  good  points.  Limit  yourself  to  twenty-five  words,  and 
write  a  "  catchy  "  advertisement  for  some  standard  article. 

6.  Of  the  poems  quoted  in  this  book,  which  appeals  most 
to  you  in  its  measure  ?  Try  to  master  this  measure,  and  write 
a  stanza  in  that  rhythm,  using  any  theme  that  strikes  your 
fancy. 

7.  Catch  the  quaint  style  and  rhythm  of  Hiawatha.  Think 
out  the  story  of  the  everyday  life  of  an  Indian  boy  or  girl. 
Write  an  episode  or  happening  in  the  life  of  such  a  child, 
using  the  style  of  Hiawatha.  Use  about  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  lines  of  continuous  verse. 

8.  Prepare  an  eight-line  stanza  in  the  style  of  Bourdillon's 
lines  beginning.  The  7iight  has  a  thousand  eyes.  Study  its  con- 
struction and  catch  its  rhythm. 

9.  Refer  to  the  ballad,  Lord  Ullin^s  Daughter.  Write 
three  or  four  stanzas  in  that  style. 

10.  Study  the  mechanism  of  the   sonnet.    Write  a  sonnet, 


Exercises  in  Poetry  and  the  Drama       435 

observing  carefully  all  the  points  to  be  noted  in  its  construe' 
tion.  Eefer  to  the  public  library  for  some  book  or  magazine 
article  on  the  sonnet.  Do  not  attempt  to  write  your  sonnet 
without  giving  it  the  necessary  study.  Eefer  it  when  com- 
pleted to  the  editorial  committee  for  its  criticism  before  handing 
it  to  the  instructor  in  English. 

(c)  Exercises  in  Dramatic  Forms.  —  Try  one  or  more  of  the 
following : 

1.  Dramatize  the  story  of  Rohin  Hood.  Refer  to  some 
book  telling  the  story  of  the  bold  outlaw,  and  put  one  episode 
into  a  one-act  drama,  using  two  or  more  scenes.  Try  to  make 
it  worth  reproducing  either  by  little  children  or  by  older 
pupils.  Study  accuracy  in  your  directions  as  to  costume  and 
stage  properties. 

2.  Put  the  story  of  Cinderella  into  good  dramatic  form. 
You  may  have  three  acts :  (a)  the  events  leading  up  to  the 
ball ;  (6)  what  happened  at  the  ball ;  and  (c)  the  fitting  of  the 
slipper  to  the  foot  of  Cinderella.  Use  what  scenes  you  may 
find  necessary.  Do  not  put  pen  to  paper  to  write  your  play 
until  you  have  decided  practically  everything  that  you  pro- 
pose to  do.  Write  with  the  view  of  having  your  play  acted  by 
pupils  of  the  high  school. 

3.  Dramatize  the  story  of  Treasure  Island.  Use  enough  of 
it  to  make  one  scene.  Do  not  attempt  more  than  one  or  two 
chapters.  .     * 

4.  Dramatize  the  story  of  "  Joseph  and  His  Brethren,"  as 
told  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  Exercise  your  own  judgment  as 
to  how  much  to  use.     Do  not  crowd  your  incidents. 

6.  Think  out  a  story  that  is  suitable  for  dramatization. 
Study  accuracy  in  dramatic  form,  in  preparing  your  manu- 
script. 

6.  Prepare  an  outline  or  synopsis  of  a  dramatized  version 
of  Silas  Mamer.  Use  the  incidents  of  the  loss  of  his  gold, 
and  the  finding  of  the  golden-haired  baby  who  revolutionized 
his  life.  Let  your  outline  indicate  the  drama,  but  do  not  write 
out  the  dialogue. 


436 


Poetry  and  Drama 


7.  If  the  editorial  committee  approve  of  the  outline  thus 
submitted,  all  whose  papers  are  thus  approved  may  constitute 
a  dramatic  committee,  to  prepare  the  story  for  dramatizing, 
and  later,  for  reproduction  as  a  class  play. 

(d)  Longer  Theme.  —  Make  a  careful  study  of  at  least  one  of  the 
following.     Report  on  it  in  any  form  you  please. 


Alcott 

Little  Women 

Darwin 

Voyage      of      the 

Aldrich 

Story    of     a    Bad 

Beagle 

Boy 

Davis 

Van  Bibber's  Bur- 

Allen 

Flute  and  Violin 

glar 

Andkrsbn 

Fairy  Tales 

Defoe 

Robinson  Crusoe 

Arabian  Nights 

DeMorgan 

Alice-for-Short 

Barrie 

Sentimental 

Dickens 

Our  Mutual  Friend 

Tommie 

Dodge 

Hans  Brinker 

Bennett 

Master  Skylark 

Dumas 

Count    of     Monte 

Black 

Judith          Shake- 

Cristo 

speare 

Earle 

Diary,  Anna  Green 

Blackmorb 

Lorna  Doone 

Winslow 

Brown 

Rab       and       His 

Eggleston 

Hoosier        School- 

Friends 

master 

Bryant 

The  Odyssey  (Tr.) 

Eliot 

Adam  Bede 

Bulwer 

Last       Days       of 

Fox 

Little  Shepherd  of 

Pompeii 

Kingdom  Come 

Butcher  and 

Lang  The  Odyssey  (Tr.) 

Franklin 

Autobiography 

BUNNER 

A  Sisterly  Scheme 

Freeman 

The      Revolt      of 

BUNYAN 

Pilgrim's  Progress 

Mother 

Burnett 

Sara  Crewe 

Froissart 

Ballads 

Carlyle 

Frederick    the 

Garland 

Boy    Life    on    the 

Great 

Prairie 

Carroll 

•     '.Alice    in   Wonder- 

Goldsmith 

She  Stoops  to  Con- 

land 

quer 

Cervantes 

Don  Quixote 

Grant 

Memoirs 

Du  Chaillu 

Lost  in  the  Jungle 

Grimm 

Fairy  Tales 

Chaucer 

Prologue 

Hakluyt 

Principal     English 

Cobb 

A     Card     to     the 

Voyages 

Public 

Hardy 

Wessex  Tales 

COOPEK 

Last  of  the  Mohi- 

Harris 

Uncle  Remus 

cans 

Harte 

Tales  of  the  Argo- 

Ceaddock 

The     Mystery     of 

nauts 

Witch       Face 

Hawthorne 

Tanglewood,  Won- 

Mountain 

der  Book 

Dana 

Two  Years  Before 

Hemstreet 

Nooks  and  Corners 

the  Mast 

of     Old     New 

Dantb 

The  Inferno 

York 

Exercises  in  Poetry  and  the  Drama      437 


0.  Henry 

A  Chapparal  Prince 

Palmer 

The  Odyssey  (Tr.) 

The    Gifts    of    the 

Parkman 

California  and   the 

Magi 

Oregon  Trail 

The    Cop  and    the 

Percy 

Reliques 

Anthem 

Phillips 

Ulysses 

HiGGINSON 

Young  Folks  Hist. 

Pope 

The  Iliad  (Tr.) 

U.  S. 

Pyle 

The  Merry  Adven- 

Hughes 

Tom      Brown      at 

tures  of  Robin 

Rugby 

Hood 

Hugo 

Les  Miserables 

Reade 

Cloister     and     the 

Ingelow 

High  Tide 

Hearth 

Irving 

Sketch  Book 

ROLFE 

Shakespeare        the 

Jackson 

Glimpses    of    Cali- 

Boy 

fornia 

Roosevelt 

Winning     of      the 

Jewett 

Tales  of  New  Eng- 

West 

land 

Ruskin 

King  of  the  Golden 

Johnson 

Life  of  Addison 

River 

Kelly 

Little  Citizens 

Sand 

Fanchon      the 

Lang 

Animal  Story  Book 

Cricket 

Lahcom 

A     New     England 

Scott 

Ivanhoe,    Lady    of 

Girlhood 

the  Lake 

Locke 

A  Christmas  Mys- 

Sewell 

Black  Beauty 

tery 

Shakespeare 

As    You    Like    It, 

Lodge 

American        Hero 

Hamlet 

Tales 

Sienkiewicz 

Quo  Vadis  ? 

London 

The     Call    of    the 

Stevenson 

Treasure       Island, 

Wild 

Child's  Garden 

Longfellow 

Hiawatha,      Evan- 

of Verse 

geline 

Stewart 

Partners  of  Provi- 

Mabie 

Norse  Tales 

dence 

Macaulay 

Lays    of     Ancient 

Tarbell 

Life  of  Lincoln 

Rome 

Thackeray 

Vanity  Fair 

Milton 

Paradise  Lost,  I  and 

Twain 

Huckleberry  Finn, 

II 

Tom  Sawyer 

Mitchell 

Adventures           of 

Vernb 

Twenty   Thousand 

Fran9ois 

Leagues  Under 

Montgomery 

Anne      of      Green 

the  Sea 

Gables 

Washington 

Up  From  Slavery 

MULOCK 

John  Halifax,  Gen- 

WlGGIN 

Rebecca  of  Sunny- 

tleman 

brook  Farm 

Ollivant 

Bob,  Son  of  Battle 

Wilson 

George     Washing- 

OUIDA 

A  Dog  of  Flanders 

ton 

Page 

Two  Little  Confed- 

Wirt 

Patrick  Henry 

erates 

Wister 

The  Virginian 

438 


Poetry  and  Drama 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 

A  Blue  Grass  Home. 
A  Center  of  Hospitality. 

A  Blue  Grass  Home.  —  This  suggests  hospitality.  If  you  have 
ever  visited  such  a  home,  you  will  remember  it  with  pleasure. 
In  the  Kentucky  mountains,  even  where  the  people  are 
poor,  the  welcome  you  receive  is  always  hearty. 

1.  A  House  Party.  —  Think  of  yourself  as  one  of  a  half-dozen  boya 
and  as  many  girls,  home  from  school  for  the  summer  holidays  and  in- 
vited for  the  week-end.  Not  an  idle  moment  from  dawn  to  dark  !  A 
canter  over  the  hills  on  horseback ;  a  swim  at  Old  Lonesome  Pool  in 
Gunpowder  Creek ;  lawn  tennis.  Lunch  at  noon,  and  an  automobile 
run  for  the  afternoon.  Dinner  at  six,  and  such  a  dinner  I  Then  a 
dance  until  eleven.  If  you  cannot  go  to  a  party  like  that  any  other 
way,  go  in  imagination.     Write  a  letter  telling  about  it. 

2.  Chaperons.  —  Who  were  your  chaperons?  Perhaps  the  wife 
of  the  governor  of  the  State,  with  other  gracious  ladies,  all  only  too 
well  pleased  to  see  the  youngsters  enjoy  themselves,  and  by  their  very 
presence  making  courtesy  and  thoughtfulness  for  others  a  natural 
thing.  Give  your  impressions  of  this  feature  of  a  house  party.  Write 
a  letter  about  it. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  439 

3.  The  Proper  Courtesies.  —  When  the  time  comes  to  break  up, 
note  the  courtesies  that  mark  the  scene.  Describe  the  leave-taking  on 
the  part  of  the  members  of  the  party.     Write  it  in  form  of  a  letter. 

4.  Deference.  —  In  some  homes  when  a  lady,  young  or  old,  enters 
the  room,  you  will  note  that  every  gentleman,  even  to  the  young  boys, 
rises  with  marked  deference  and  stands  at  the  back  of  his  chair  until 
the  lady  chooses  where  she  desires  to  sit,  when  all  silently  resume 
their  seats.  Is  a  little  thing  like  that  worth  while  ?  Discuss  it  orally, 
in  a  three-minute  talk. 

5.  Hats  Off.  —  How  about  taking  off  your  hats  when  you  speak  to 
a  lady  or  to  an  old  gentleman,  on  the  street?  Is  it  the  custom  in 
your  school  to  raise  your  hat  as  you  meet  or  pass  your  teacher  ojf 
your  principal  ?     Oral,  two  minutes. 

6.  Politeness  on  the  Street  Cars.  —  Should  a  boy  rise  and  yield  his 
seat  to  a  woman,  young  or  old?  Discuss  this  topic.  You  may  write 
it  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  words,  or  give  it  in  a  two-minute  talk. 


PART   SIX 

GRAMMAR 

I.    PARTS   OF  SPEECH 


The  whole  fabric  of  grammar  rests  upon  the  classifying  of  words 
according  to  their  functions  in  the  sentence.  —  Bain. 

Definition  of  Grammar.  —  Grammar  is  the  study  of  the 
forms  of  words,  and  their  relation  one  to  another  in 
sentences.^ 

An  easy  way  to  make  clear  this  relation  is  to  analyze 
the  sentence.  This  consists  of  pointing  out  the  subject 
and  the  predicate  and  their  modifiers.^ 


1  Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  training  in  the  recognition  of  the 
relationships  of  the  various  parts  of  the  sentence  to  one  another.  .  .  . 
Comparatively  little  study  of  grammatical  theory  from  a  text-book  is 
necessary,  but  a  brief  outline  of  the  more  common  uses  of  parts  of  speech, 
phrases,  and  clauses,  may  be  placed  in  the  pupils'  hands  as  the  basis  of 
occasional  lessons,  and  for  reference.  —  From  the  English  Syllabus^ 
Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 

2  The  Joint  Committee  on  the  Beorganization  of  High  School  English 
states  definitely  what  has  been  agreed  upon  as  the  work  of  the  two 
grades  preceding  the  high  school,  under  the  old  arrangement ;  or  the  first 
two  grades  of  the  junior  high  school,  under  the  proposed  arrangement. 
This  will  be  found  invaluable  for  reference  by  the  instructor  in  English. 

Orade  VII.  —  Grammar,  including  subject  and  predicate,  object, 
predicate  noun  or  adjective  ;  recognition  of  the  parts  of  speech  by  chief 
function  of  each  ;  inflection  of  nouns  and  personal  pronouns  for  number 
and  case ;  the  idea  of  tense ;  clauses  and  phrases  as  groups  with  func- 
tions of  single  words ;  spelling  of  words  used  ;  necessary  punctuation. 

440 


Definition  of  the  Subject  441 

Definition  of  the  Subject.  —  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is 
that  word  of  which  something  is  affirmed  or  denied.  In 
the  sentence,  Wild  flowers  bloom  in  the  spring^  the  word 
flx)wers  is  the  subject. 

Definition  of  the  Predicate.  —  The  predicate  of  a  sentence 
is  the  word  which  expresses  what  is  affirmed  or  denied  of 
the  subject.  In  the  sentence,  Aladdin  commanded  the 
Genius  to  build  him  at  once  the  most  beautiful  palace  ever 
seen,  the  word  commanded  is  the  predicate. 

Note.  —  Sometimes  the  subject  and  all  its  modifiers  are  called  the 
subject,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  the  predicate.  Thus  in  the 
sentence  above,  all  the  words  except  Aladdin  would  be  called  the  predicate. 

Analysis  of  a  Sentence.  —  Take  this  sentence  from  Van 
Dyke's  Fisherman's  Luck : 

A  black  eagle  swings  silently  around  his  circle^  far  up  in  the 
cloudless  sky. 

This  sentence  tells  about  two  things  :  an  eagle  ;  and  what  it 
does.  The  iirst  three  words  tell  about  the  eagle,  while  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  tells  what  the  eagle  does.  It  swings.  The  sen- 
tence may  be  said  to  be  built  up  from  the  two  words,  eagle  and 
swings,  of  which  eagle  is  the  subject,  and  swings  is  the  predi- 
cate. 

Two  words  of  the  sentence,  a  and  black,  belong  to  the  sub- 
ject, while  everything  in  the  sentence  from  swings  to  the  end, 
belongs  to  the  predicate.     The  sentence  may  be  written  thus : 

a  black  eagle 

swings  silently  around  his  circle,  far  up  in  the  cloudless  sky 


Grade  VIII.  —  Grammar,  including  essential  elements  of  the  sentence 
(subject,  predicate,  modifiers,  connectives),  clauses  as  parts  of  compound 
and  complex  sentences  ;  common  and  proper  nouns ;  classes  of  pronouns  ; 
person,  number,  and  voice  of  verbs  ;  comparison  and  classification  of 
adjectives  and  adverbs ;  choice  of  prepositions  ;  conjunctions  as  coordi- 
nating and  subordinating ;  planning  of  themes ;  manipulation  of  sentences ; 
spelling,  punetuation. 


442  Grammar 

Or  it  may  be  written  thus  : 

a  black  eagle 

silently 

around  his  circle 
swings      - 

°       far  up 

in  the  cloudless  sky 

Written  in  a  still  different  form,  to  show  how  the  sentence 
is  built  up,  that  is,  to  analyze  it,  it  may  take  this  form : 


^^Sle      black 

silently 
around  circle 

his 

swings    up 

far 

in  sky 

the 
cloudless 

Take  another  sentence  from  Fisherman'' 8  Luck.  Certain 
poor  fishermen^  coming  in  weary  after  a  night  of  toil^  found 
their  Master  standing  on  the  hank  of  the  lake^  waiting  for  them. 

In  this  sentence, ^s/iermen  is  the  subject,  and  found  is  the 
predicate.  The  sentence  is  built  upon  these  two  words.  Cer- 
tain words  seem  naturally  to  belong  to  each  of  these  two  words. 
Such  words  are  said  to  be  modifiers  of  the  words  to  which  they 
belong.  For  instance,  the  first  half  of  this  sentence  happens 
to  belong  to  the  subject,  up  to  the  word  toil ;  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  from  the  word  found  to  the  end,  just  as  clearly  belongs 
to  the  predicate.     Simplifying  it,  it  may  be  written  thus : 


certain 

■fi  Qll  ATTn  PT 

^      poor 

a 

USlld  I4i.ci 

coming  in 

after  night 

of  toil 

weary 

their 

found 

Master 

standing 

on  bank 

waiting 

for  them 

the 

of  lake  the 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


448 


KiLLARNEY. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Killaraey.  —  The  Lakes  of  Killarney  are  exquisitely  beauti- 
ful. I^Tor  are  they  merely  beautiful.  The  charm  of  romantic 
history  clings  to  them.  One  island  in  the  Killarney  Lakes 
holds  Ross  Castle,  and  on  another  is  "  Sweet  Innisfallen," 
celebrated  by  Thomas  Moore.  On  still  another  is  found  an 
old  Franciscan  ruin,  Muckross  Abbey. 

1.  Write  a  description  of  the  picture,  or  tell  a  story,  the  scene  of 
which  is  laid  in  Ross  Castle  or  Muckross  Abbey. 

2.  "  Killarney." — There  is  a  song  with  this  title.  Let  a  good  reader 
recite  it ;  or  better,  let  a  good  singer  sing  it. 


444  Grammar 

Exercises  in  Analyzing  Sentences.  —  Take  the  sentences 
given  below,  and  show  how  they  are  built  up.  That  is, 
find  the  subject  and  the  predicate^  and  tell  what  words 
belong  to  or  modify  each.  You  are  not,  however,  re- 
quired to  diagram  the  sentences. 

1.  Scarlet  berries  of  the  mountain-ash  hang  around  the  lake. 
2.  Tiny  waves  dance  all  along  the  shore.  3.  The  world  teems 
with  joyful  life.  4.  The  gray  light  glimmers  through  the 
canvas  of  the  tent.  5.  The  rising  wind  shakes  the  tent-flaps. 
6.  You  see  the  white  tents  gleaming  from  the  pine-groves 
around  the  little  lakes.  7.  A  pair  of  kingfishers  dart  across 
the  bay,  in  flashes  of  living  blue.  8.  A  spotted  sandpiper 
teetered  along  before  me,  followed  by  three  young-ones. 

—  From  Fisherman's  Luck,  Henry  Van  Dyke. 

If  you  study  the  sentences  so  far  used,  you  will  find 
that  the  subject  is  a  noun^  or  something  that  is  used  as  a 
noun ;  and  that  the  predicate  is  a  verh^  or  some  word  or 
group  of  words  used  as  a  verb. 

Definition  of  the  Noun.  —  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any 
person,  place,  or  thing,  existing  in  fact  or  thought.  In 
the  sentence  below  from  Gray's  Elegy^  curfew^  knell,  day^ 
herd,  lea,  plowman,  way,  worlds  and  darkness,  are  nouns. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Definition  of  the  Verb.  —  A  verb  is  a  word  which  asserts 
action,  being,  or  state ;  or  which  affirms  or  denies  some- 
thing of  some  person,  place,  or  thing.  In  the  above  sen- 
tence, tolls,  winds,  plods,  and  leaves,  are  verbs. 

Note.  —  Remember  that  it  is  the  function  of  a  word,  its  use  in  the  sen- 
tence, that  determines  its  nature.  You  cannot  tell  whether  leaves  and  tolls 
are  nouns  or  verbs  till  you  see  what  are  their  functions  in  the  sentence. 


Parts  of  Speech  445 

The  noun  and  the  verb  together  form  the  basis  of  every 
sentence.  If  you  will  study  the  sentences  taken  from 
Van  Dyke's  Fisherman  8  Luch^  you  will  note  that  certain 
words  group  about  the  subject^  and  certain  others  group  about 
the  predicate.  All  these  words  belong  to  certain  definite 
groups  called  parts  of  speech. 

Parts  of  Speech.  —  There  are  eight  parts  of  speech,  — 
•the  noun,  and  the  verb  ;  the  pronoun ;  the  adjective  and 
the  adverb  ;  the  preposition,  the  conjunction,  and  the  in- 
terjection. 

Functions  of  the  Subordinate  Parts  of  Speech.  —  The 
office  of  the  pronoun  is  two-fold.  It  represents  the  noun, 
and  takes  its  place,  so  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  and  tire- 
some repetition  of  the  noun.  And  in  some  of  its  forms, 
it  limits  or  modifies  the  noun.  In  such  cases,  it  is  called 
an  adjective  pronoun. 

In  the  sentence  from  Gray's  Elegy.,  the  pronoun  his 
represents  the  nou;i  plowman.,  and  at  the  same  time  modi- 
fies the  noun  way.  In  the  fourth  line,  me  represents  the 
speaker,  but  does  not  modify  any  noun. 

Adjectives  limit  or  modify  the  meaning  of  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns, while  adverbs  limit  or  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs, 
and  sometimes  of  adjectives  and  other  adverbs.  In  the 
above  sentence  from  Gray's  Elegy,  parting  is  an  adjective, 
modifying  the  noun  day ;  louring  is  an  adjective,  modify- 
ing the  noun  herd ;  weary  is  an  adjective,  modifying  the 
noun  way.  In  the  same  sentence,  slowly  is  an  adverb, 
modifying  the  verb  winds,  and  homeward  is  an  adverb, 
modifying  the  verb  plods. 

The  preposition  is  placed  before  some  noun  or  pronoun 
called  its  object,  and  joins  this  to  some  other  word.  It 
shows  the  relation  between  its  object  and  that  word. 

The  conjunction  is  used  to  connect  other  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses. 


446  Grammar 

The  interjection  has  no  grammatical  connection  with 
the  other  words  of  the  sentence.  It  is  thrown  into  the 
sentence  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

What  Decides  the  Part  of  Speech  of  a  Word.  —  The  use 
of  a  word  in  a  sentence  decides  what  part  of  speech 
that  word  is.  For  instance,  iron  is  ordinarily  a  noun,  as 
in  the  sentence,  Iron  is  a  useful  metal.  But  when  you 
say,  The  fireman  jammed  the  iron  hook  through  the  unndow^ 
iron  is  used  as  an  adjective.  If  you  say,  Mary^  did  you 
get  time  to  iron  my  clothes  ?  you  are  using  iron  as  a  verb. 

If  you  say.  The  current  is  swift  near  the  piers.,  or  He  is  a 
swift  runner.,  you  are  using  swift  as  an  adjective.  But  if 
you  say.  The  race  is  not  always  to  the  swift.,  you  are  using 
swift  as  a  noun. 

EXERCISES  IN  DISTINGUISHING  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

(a)  Go  through  all  the  sentences  so  far  given  in  this  chapter,  and 
indicate  what  part  of  speech  each  word  is.  If  it  is  used  as  the  sub- 
ject or  the  predicate,  say  so.  If  it  modifies  any  word,  tell  what  word 
it  modifies.  In  the  case  of  a  preposition,  tell  between  what  words  it 
shows  the  relation ;  and  if  it  is  a  conjunction,  show  what  words  or 
groups  of  words  it  connects.     Let  this  work  be  oral. 

(h)  Refer  to  the  Selections  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  on 
Poetry  and  Drama,  and  arranging  the  eight  parts  of  speech  in 
columns,  make  a  list  of  twenty  words  under  each  heading,  except 
interjections,  of  which  not  so  many  are  used. 

(c)  Tell  to  what  part  of  speech  each  italicized  word  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences  belongs. 

(1)  That  book  is  mine.  (2)  The  mine  owners  refused  to 
comply  with  the  demands  of  the  workmen.  (3)  Who  operates 
that  minef  (4)  She  takes  good  care  of  her  school  books. 
(6)  Is  Elizabeth  at  school  to-day?  (6)  School  yourself,  my 
dear  boy,  to  endure  a  little  hardship.  (7)  Taste  this  water. 
It  seems  to  me  to  have  an  unusual  taste. 

(d)  Make  sentences,  using  the  words  of  the  following  list  (1)  as 
verbs ;  and  (2)  as  nouns. 


Nouns  447 

Breakfast,  paint,  stamp,  catch,  defeat,  light,  pick,  plow, 
slip,  fish. 

(e)  Make  sentences,  using  these  words  (1)  as  nouns,  and  (2)  as 
adjectives. 

Eleven,  forest,  nine,  cold,  silver,  cunning,  all,  table,  pink, 
white. 

(/)  Make  sentences,  using  these  words  (1)  as  adverbs,  and  (2)  as 
prepositions.  You  may  set  this  down  as  a  rule,  that  a  preposition 
which  drops  its  object  becomes  an  adverb. 

Over,  aboard,  behind,  up,  on,  in,  along,  since,  above,  below. 

II.     NOUNS 

Kinds  of  Nouns.  —  Nouns  are  considered  under  two 
classes.  Proper  nouns  are  used  for  particular  persons, 
places,  or  things.  In  the  line  quoted  below,  Shakespeare^ 
a  person  ;  Macbeth,  a  play,  that  is,  a  thing  ;  and  StraU 
ford-on- Avon,  a  place,  are  all  proper  nouns. 

Common  nouns  are  names  which  may  be  applied  to  any 
of  a  class  or  kind  of  objects.  In  the  same  sentence,  play 
and  home  are  common  nouns. 

Shakespeare  is  supposed  to  have  written  his  play  of  Macbeth 
at  his  home  in  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Common  nouns  may  be  (1)  concrete ;  (2)  abstract ; 
(3)  collective  ;  and  (4)  verbal. 

1.  A  concrete  noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  a  place,  or 
a  thing  that  actually  exists  in  space.  Men,  street,  bam, 
house,  and  tree,  are  concrete  nouns. 

2.  An  abstract  nounM  the  name  of  a  quality  or  condi- 
tion that  does  not  exist  in  space,  but  of  which  you  can 
think.  Goodness,  childhood,  imagination,  pleasure,  and 
obscurity,  are  abstract  nouns. 

3.  A  collective  noun  is  the  name  of  a  group  of  persons 


448 


Grammar 


or  things,  considered  as  one.     Army,  jury,  committee,  eon- 
gre88,  family,  and  nation,  are  collective  nouns. 

4.  A  verbal  noun  is  the  name  of  an  action.  In  the 
sentence,  Seeing  is  believing,  both  seeing  and  believing  are 
verbal  nouns. 


Thought  you  said  dinner  was  ready  I" 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Dinner.  —  This  crowd  of  freshmen  boys  seem  all  to  be  of 
one  mind.  "  Thought  you  said  dinner  was  ready,"  is  the  ex- 
pression of  their  attitude.  They  all  look  as  if  they  subsisted 
largely  upon  what  they  ate.  In  fact,  if  you  want  to  get  hungry, 
there  is  no  place  better  than  a  high  school  camp.  Wouldn't 
you,  as  a  freshman,  like  to  be  a  member  of  this  particular 
camp  ?  It  doesn't  take  much  imagination  to  see  how  good  a 
time  tlv  y'll  have,  after  dinner,  and  all  the  time.  Fishing,  and 
swimming,  and  playing  Indian,  and  baseball,  and  a  military 
drill.  Then,  too,  they  must  attend  the  school  of  "  camp  in- 
struction."   There  they  will  learn  to  put  up  and  take  dgwn 


Inflection  or  Declension  of  Nouns        449 

tents ;  to  build  and  take  care  of  camp  fires ;  to  cook ;  and  to 
sew  a  little,  so  as  to  repair  all  clothing  torn,  and  all  such  work. 

Write  or  talk  of  a  datfs  work  in  a  high  school  camp.  If  your  plan 
was  difEerent,  or  if  you  can  think  of  a  better  plan  than  is  here  sug- 
gested, tell  about  it. 

Inflection  or  Declension  of  Nouns.  —  Nouns  are  inflected 
to  show  differences  in  number  and  case.  Such  inflection 
is  called  declension.     For  instance  : 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

Nominative 

sailor 

sailors 

lady- 

ladies 

Possessive 

sailor's 

sailors' 

lady's 

ladies' 

Objective 

sailor 

sailors 

lady 

ladies 

Number. — Nouns  show  a  change  in  form  to  indicate 
one  or  more  than  one.  There  are  a  few  nouns,  however, 
whose  form  does  not  indicate  whether  they  mean  one  or 
more  than  one.  You  must  depend  upon  their  use  in  the 
sentence  to  decide  as  to  their  number.  For  example,  the 
word  deer  indicates  only  one  if  you  say  that  you  shot  a 
fine  deer,  but  if  you  say  that  you  missed  three  deer,  you 
indicate  more  than  one. 

There  are  two  numbers,  singular  and  plural.  The  sin- 
gular number  denotes  hut  one.  The  plural  number 
denotes  more  than  one. 

Formation  of  the  Plural.  — There  are  three  ways  of 
forming  the  plural  :  (1)  The  plural  of  most  nouns  is 
formed  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular.  (2)  The  plural 
of  a  few  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  en  to  the  singular. 
(3)  The  plural  of  some  nouns  is  formed  by  changing  the- 
vowel  sounds.  Examples  of  each  of  these  three  kinds  are 
given  below. 

Examples.  (1)  Horse,  horses;  chair,  chairs;  linen,  linens; 
elephant,  elephants  ;  soldier,   soldiers  ;  box,  boxes ;  fox,  foxes. 


450  Grammar 

(2)  Ox,  oxen  ;   child,  children.      (3)    Foot,  feet  ;  man,  mm  ; 
woman,  women;  mouse,  mice;  tooth,  teeth;  goose,  geese. 

(a)  The  fundamental  part  of  a  compound  word  takes  the 
plural  ending;  as  brothers-in-law;  men-of-war;  but  knight- 
templar  takes  either  form,  knights-templar,  or  knight-templars. 
Man-servant  changes  both  forms,  men-servants. 

(b)  Some  nouns  have  no  singular,  but  are  always  plural  : 
bellows,  dregs,  eaves,  pincers,  scissors,  and  tidings. 

(c)  Some  words  take  a  plural  form,  and  yet  are  singular ; 
as  news,  athletics,  alms,  politics,  and  mathematics.  That  news 
is  good. 

(d)  The  plural  of  letters  and  figures  is  formed  by  adding  's ; 
As,  There  are  a  great  many  M^s  in  the  telephone  list.  You 
do  not  form  your  S^s  correctly.  But  when  the  number  is 
written  out,  it  forms  its  plural  regul3;rly.  They  marched  by 
Jives. 

(e)  In  forming  the  plural  of  proper  names,  we  say  Messrs. 
Brown,  and  the  Misses  Walker.  Mesdames  Walker  and  Brown, 
meaning  Mrs.  Walker  and  Mrs.  Brown. 

The  plural  of  proper  nouns  of  more  than  one  syllable  is  formed 
by  adding  an  apostrophe,  if  the  noun  ends  in  s.  Otherwise  s  or 
es  is  added.  The  Joneses  and  Wallaces  just  called  on  the  Rosses 
and  Atkins'. 

(/)  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  the  singular 
and  plural.  As,  sheep,  deer;  That  sheep  is  a  fine  merino. 
Those  sheep  are  all  merinos. 

{g)  In  words  compounded  with  ful,  the  s  is  added  to  the 
last  syllable :  cupfuls,  handfuls,  spoonfuls.  If  more  than  one 
cup,  hand,  or  spoon  is  filled,  then  it  may  be  written  two  cupa 
full,  etc. 

(h)  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  change  y  to 
i  and  add  es:  lady,  ladies;  city,  cities;  duty,  duties.  Nouns 
ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  form  the  plural  regularly, 
adding  s  to  the  singular ;  as,  valley,  valleys;  money,  moneys. 

(i)  Several  nouns  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  form  theii 
plural  by  adding  es  to  the  singular.     As,  echo,  echoes;  veto, 


Exercises  on  the  Number  of  Nouns      451 

vetoes;  cargo,  cargoes;  potato,  potatoes;  motto,  mottoes.  Most 
nouns  of  this  class  form  their  plurals  regularly.  Where  the 
final  0  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  noun  takes  its  plural 
regularly;  as,  cameo,  cameos;   oratorio,  oratorios. 

(j)  Most  nouns  in  /  or  /e  change  /  to  u  and  add  s  ot  es;  as 
elf,  elves;  wife,  loives;  calf,  calves;  knife,  knives;  thief,  thieves. 
But  roof  cliff,  chief  fief  brief  and  some  other  words  simply  add 
s  to  the  singular  ;  as,  roofs,  cliffs,  etc. 

(k)  Many  words  introduced  from  foreign  languages  retain 
the  foreign  plurals  ;  as,  alumna,  alumnce;  alumnus,  alumni; 
analysis,  analyses;  datum,  data;  erratum,  errata;  bacterium, 
bacteria;  crisis,  crises;  hypothesis, hypotheses ;  parenthesis,  par- 
entheses; thesis,  theses;  focus,  foci;  criterion,  criteria;  cheinib, 
cherubim;  seraph,  seraphim. 

(l)  Several  foreign  words  have  two  plurals,  one  the  regu- 
lar English  plural,  and  the  other,  derived  from  the  foreign 
language  from  which  they  were  introduced.  Thus  appendix, 
appendices  or  appendixes;  cJierub,  cherubim  or  cherubs;  genus, 
genera  or  genuses;  memorandum,  memoranda  or  memoran- 
dums; formula,  formulae  ov  formulas;  focus,  foci  oi  focuses. 

EXERCISE  ON  THE  NUMBER  OF  NOUNS 

(a)  Write  the  plurals  of  the  following: 

Belief,  canoe,  artery,  eulogium,  curio,  appendix,  13,  nine, 
congress,  obscurity,  ashes,  tooth,  field  mouse,  Mrs.  Stone,  ban- 
dit, hatful,  staff,  assembly. 

(b)  Make  sentences  orally,  containing  the  following  words  used  in 
both  singular  and  plural : 

Army,  man-servant,  man-of-war,  dregs,  volcano,  mathe- 
matics, bass,  calico,  mother-in-law,  rhinoceros. 

(c)  Write  the  plurals  of  the  following  in  sentences : 
Series,  portfolio,  parenthesis,  athletics,  mongoose. 

(d)  Think  of  some  game  you  like  to  play.  Select  ten  nouns  that 
are  used  in  this  game.  Use  these  nouns  in  sentences,  at  first  in  the 
singular ;  then  change  them  to  the  plural. 


452 


Grammar 


A  Sea  of  Wild  Flowers. 
Glaciers  and  mountains  of  snow  in  the  background. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

A  SeA  of  Wild  Flowers.  —  This  is  a  scene  from  Glacier 
National  Park.  You  may  see  the  glaciers  and  ice-covered 
mountains  in  the  background.  Just  on  the  verge  of  this  world 
of  ice,  think  of  untold  millions  of  wild  flowers  !  A  high  school 
class  is  visiting  this  paradise  of  flowers,  and  while  the  rest 
of  the  Freshmen  girls  are  not  far  away,  just  one  girl  shows  in 
the  picture. 

1.  Put  yourself  in  the  girl's  place,  and  tell  how  she  came  to  be 
taken  alone,  out  of  all  her  class,  in  the  forefront  of  this  picture.  Give 
the  story  as  if  you  were  the  girl. 

2.  The  hoys  of  the  class  may  describe  a  climb  on  the  glacier.  —  Let 
them,  however,  be  sure  of  their  facts. 

3.  Name  five  nouns,  five  verbs,  and  ten  adjectives  that  have  to  do 
with  glaciers. 

Case.  —  Construction  is  the  grammatical  relation  that  a 
noun  or  pronoun  has  to  the  other  words  of  the  sentence. 


The  Nominative  Case  453 

The  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  determined  by  its  con- 
struction. 

There  are  three  cases  in  English,  the  nominative,  the 
possessive,  and  the  objective.  Nouns,  however,  show  only 
two  forms  for  each  number,  as  the  nominative  and  objective 
cases  have  the  same  form.     Pronouns  show  all  three  forms. 

The  Nominative  Case.  —  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is 
in  the  nominative  case.  In  the  sentence,  Tom  came  home 
with  a  two-pound  bass,  Tom  is  the  subject,  and  is  said  to  be 
in  the  nominative  case. 

There  are  six  constructions  of  the  nominative  case. 

1.  Tlie  subject  of  a  sentence  is  in  the  nominative  case,  as 
just  shown 

2.  The  predicate  of  a  sentence,  if  a  noun  or  pronoun,  is  said 
to  be  in  the  nominative.  The  predicate  nominative  is  often 
called  the  subjective  complement.  It  "fills  up"  or  completes 
the  idea  of  the  subject. 

One  man  seemed  to  be  the  leader  of  the  party. 
Edith  is  a  trained  musician. 
Dick  has  been  elected  captain. 

In  the  above  sentences,  the  italicized  words  are  all  used  in 
the  nominative  case,  as  the  predicate  of  the  sentence,  that  is, 
as  subjective  complernents. 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  in  apjjosition  with  another  noun 
or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  is  also  in  the  nominative. 

Shakespeare  the  writer  is  famous  ;  but  Shakespeare  the  man 
is  little  known. 

•Here  tvriter  and  man  are  in  apposition  with  Shakespeare, 
which  being  in  the  nominative  case,  puts  writer  and  maji  also 
in  the  nominative,  by  apposition. 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  in  direct  address,  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 

Charles,  where  did  you  put  the  minnow-pail  ? 
Father,  what  shall  we  give  Esther  for  her  birthday  ? 


454  Grammar 

Charles  and  Father^  used  in  direct  address,  are  said  to  be  in 
the  nominative  case.     This  is  sometimes  called  the  vocative  case. 

6.  A  noun  used  with  a  participle,  either  expressed  or  under- 
stood, without  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is 
said  to  be  in  the  nominative  absolute.     As, 

Breakfast  being  ready,  we  hungry  fellows  needed  no  secondr 
invitation. 

6.  A  noun  used  in  exclamation  without  a  verb  is  said  to  be  in 
the  nominative  case  by  exclamation.     As, 

A  horse  1  a  horse !    My  kingdom  for  a  horse ! 

The  Possessive  Case.  —  The  possessive  case  denotes  pos- 
session or  ownership.  The  children  s  hour ;  Milton's 
poems. 

Formation  of  the  Possessive.  —  Nouns  in  the  singular 
form  their  possessives  regularly  by  adding  '« ;  as,  man's, 
world's,  God's.  A  few  singular  nouns  add  only  the 
apostrophe^  where  the  addition  of  the  «  would  produce  an 
unpleasant  combination  of  sounds  ;  as,  Moses^  life. 

(a)  Where  two  names  indicating  joint  ownership  are  in  the 
possessive,  the  sign  of  possession  is  joined  to  the  second  word ; 
as.  Smith  and  Brown's  store. 

(6)  The  plural  forms  the  possessive  regularly  by  adding  '5 
to  the  nominative.  But  if  the  plural  already  ends  in  s,  it  adds 
the  '  only.     Children's  games  ;  horses'  trappings. 

(c)  In  case  of  the  personal  pronouns,  his,  hers,  its,  ours, 
yours,  and  theirs,  the  apostrophe  is  omitted. 

{d)  Sometimes  it  is  smoother  and  better  to  denote  posses- 
sion by  of,  rather  than  by  the  use  of  the  possessive  case.  That 
was  the  attitude  of  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania. 

(e)  You  may  say,  Anybody  else^s  patience  would  have  worn 
out  under  that  strain.  Or  you  may  say,  The  patience  of 
anybody  else,  etc. 

The  Objective  Case.  —  There  are  some  constructions  in 
which  the  noun  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case. 


The  Objective  Case  455 

1.  The  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice 
is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.  He  shut  the  door  of  the 
room.  Here,  door  is  the  direct  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
shut,  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

2.  The  indirect  object  of  a  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective 
case.  He  gave  the  dog  a  bone.  Many  "writers  consider  dog  in 
this  sentence  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  to  understood, 
making  it  read,  He  gave  (to)  the  dog  a  bone,  considering  that  to 
is  to  be  supplied. 

3.  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective 
case.  He  sent  a  telegram  of  congratulation  to  his  father  and 
mother  on  their  wedding  anniversary.  Here,  congratulation  is 
said  to  be  in  the  objective  after  of,  or  as  the  object  of  of ; 
father  and  mother  are  in  the  objective  after  to  ;  and  anni- 
versary is  in  the  objective  after  on. 

4.  When  a  noun  is  used  adverbially,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the 
objective  case.  This  includes  nouns  denoting  time,  distance, 
measure,  or  value. 

I  have  fished  many  an  hour  in  that  delightful  stream. 
He  walked  a  mile  with  his  old  friends. 
That  skyscraper  is  five  hundred  feet  high. 
Those  bonds  are  not  worth  a  dollar. 

The  nouns  hour  and  mile,  feet  and  dollar,  are  said  to  be  in 
the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word  ;  that  is,  they  are 
considered  adverbial  objectives. 

5.  When  a  noun  is  used  as  the  objective  complement  of  a 
verb,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.  They  chose  him 
president.  Some  writers  consider  that  the  verb  chose  has  two 
objects,  both  in  the  objective  case. 

6.  When  a  noun  is  in  apposition  with  a  noun  in  the  objective 
case,  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case  by  apposition.  He 
saw  the  caves,  the  refuge  of  the  unhappy  fugitives.  I  happen  to  be 
a  friend  of  Dr.  Jones,  your  next  door  neighbor.  Here  refuge  is 
in  apposition  with  caves,  the  direct  object  of  saw,  and  because 
caves  is  in  the  objective  case,  refuge  is  in  the  objective  case  by 
apposition.     For  the  same  reason,  neighbor,  being  in  apposition 


456 


Grammar 


with  Dr.  Jones,  is  in  the  same  case.  Dr.  Jones,  being  in  the 
objective,  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  o/,  neighbor  is  in  the 
objective  case  by  apposition. 

7.  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  as  the  subject  of  an  in- 
finitivey  it  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.  /  had  always 
thought  him  to  be  an  honest  man.  Here,  him  is  the  subject  of 
the  infinitive  to  be.  Him  is  therefore  in  the  objective  case,  as 
the  subject  of  an  iniinitive. 

8.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  an  infln- 
itive,  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case.  In  the  sentence  just 
used,  man  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case,  as  the  comple- 
ment of  the  infinitive  to  be.  Or  it  may  be  considered  as  agree- 
ing with  him,  and  as  him  is  in  the  objective  case,  man  is  in  the 
same  case,  by  agreement. 

EXERCISE  ON  THE  CASE  OF  NOUNS 

Write  how  you  have  made,  or  would  make,  soine  such  article  as  a 
trellis  for  a  honeysuckle  vine,  or  a  bookrack ;  or,  how  you  would  cut 
out  and  make  a  working  apron.  Indicate  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in 
your  account,  and  tell  in  what  case  each  is,  and  the  reason  for  each  case. 


The  Finish  of  a  Canoe  Race. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  457 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Finish  of  a  Canoe  Race.  —  An  exciting  race,  and  a  fine  finish ! 
Of  course  these  fellows  belong  to  your  high  school,  and  the  other 
high  schools  will  have  to  swallow  their  defeat  the  best  they 
can.     It  was  a  State  Meet,  and  five  other  high  schools  entered. 

1.  Think  it  out,  and  tell  all  about  it. 

2.  What  other  events  did  your  high  school  win  ?  —  And  who  won  the 
other  events?  Which  pupil  got  the  gold  medal  for  the  highest  in- 
dividual score,  counting  all  events  ?  Describe  this,  as  though  it  had  oc- 
curred, and  just  about  as  it  would  happen,  if  your  high  school  should 
enter  such  a  State  Meet.  Or  give  it  as  an  Interscholastic  Meet,  includ- 
ing six  or  eight  high  schools  in  your  vicinity. 

3.  What  kind  of  athletics  do  you  favor,  and  why?  —  In  what  form  of 
athletics  does  your  high  school  excel,  and  why  ?  Or  does  your  high 
school  take  much  interest  in  athletics?  If  not,  why  not?  Write  or 
talk  on  one  of  these  topics. 

4.  What  form  of  athletics  do  the  girls  of  your  high  school  favor  f  — 
Give  a  fair  statement  of  your  work  in  athletics  in  the  high  school,  so 
far  as  the  girls  are  concerned. 

Gender. —  G-ender  is  the  grammatical  distinction  of  nouns 
with  regard  to  sex.  The  gender  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  de- 
noting a  male  being  is  masculine;  that  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun denoting  a  female  being  is  feminine  ;  the  gender  of 
a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  an  inanimate  being  is  neuter^ 
that  is,  it  is  of  neither  sex. 

1.  John,  Charles,  man,  scout,  soldier,  sailor,  bull,  are  mas- 
culine. 

2.  Mary,  Caroline,  woman,  seamstress,  suffragette,  lady,  tnaid, 
are  feminine. 

3.  Tree,  house,  mountain,  mind,  matter,  grammar,  helpless- 
ness, are  neuter. 

Nouns  are  said  to  have  common  gender  when  they  may 
be  either  masculine  or  feminine.  Thus,  cousin,  friend, 
author,  teacher,  instructor,  relative,  child,  infant,  companion, 


458  Grammar 

chum^  hird^  cattle^  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  and 
are  therefore  said  to  be  in  the  common  gender. 
Gender  may  be  indicated  in  three  ways  : 

1.  By  the  use  of  different  words;  as,  sow,  daughter;  master , 
mistress;  gentleman,  lady ;  hart,  roe;  sir,  madam;  Mr.,  Mrs.  or 
Miss;  brother,  sister;  king,  queen;  boy,  girl;  man,  woman; 
husband,  wife. 

2.  By  the  use  of  prefixes ;  as,  man-servant,  maid-servant; 
fore-man,  fore^woman  ;  he-goat,  she-goat. 

3.  By  the  use  of  suffixes ;  as,  host,  hostess  ;  hero,  heroine; 
czar,  czarina ;  god,  goddess;  priest,  priestess ;  prince,  princess. 

Gender  of  Personified  Nouns.  —  Where  names  of  inani- 
mate objects  are  personified,  gender  is  assigned  them 
according  to  the  usage  of  the  language  ;  in  English,  those 
personified  as  having  vigorous,  masculine  qualities  are 
made  masculine,  as,  the  sun  ;  while  those  possessing  beauty 
or  what  might  be  considered  more  feminine  qualities,  are 
more  likely  to  be  made  feminine  ;  as,  the  moon.  This 
distinction  may  be  studied  in  Collins'  Ode  to  the  Passions. 

Person. — Person  is  the  quality  possessed  by  nouns  or 
pronouns  by  which  it  is  indicated  whether  it  is  the  person 
speaking.,  spoken  to,  or  spoken  of.  These  persons  are  called 
the  first,  second,  and  third.  Nouns  do  not  show  person  by 
any  change  or  inflection,  but  by  the  meaning  of  the  context, 
that  is,  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ;  or  the  use  of  what  are 
termed  personal  pronouns  sufiiciently  indicates  the  person 
of  nouns.     In  the  sentences. 

We  are  not  the  creatures  of  circumstances. 
Nathan  said  unto  David,  Thou  art  the  man. 
They  are  not  out  friends;  they  are  our  enemies. 

the  words  creatures^  in  the  first  person,  man,  in  the  second 
person,  and  friends  and  enemies,  in  the  third  person,  have 
their  person  indicated  by  the  pronouns  we,  thou,  and  thet/. 


Pronouns  459 

Equivalents  for  Nouns.  —  Any  word  or  group  of  words 
that  performs  the  functions  of  a  noun  in  a  sentence,  is 
dealt  with  as  a  noun.     These  may  be, 

1.  K  pronoun  ;  as,  Things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

2.  An  adjective;  as,  I^one  but  the  brave  deserve  the  fair. 

3.  An  adverb;  as,  I  cannot  explain  the  ins  and  outs  of  it. 

4.  A  verbal  noun  ;  as,  Seeing  is  believing. 

5.  Any  part  of  si^eech,  in  such  sentences  as,  And  is  a  con- 
junction. 

6.  An  infinitive  phrase;  as,  To  be  or  wo^  to  be,  that  is  the 
question. 

7.  A  prepositional  phrase  ;  as.  Over  i/ie  /e?ice  is  out ! 

8.  A  clause,  or  a  complete  sentence;  as.  What  he  means,  I 
do  not  know.  What  are  you  doing  there,  are  exactly  the  words 
he  used. 

EXERCISES  ON  NOUNS 

(a)  Name  five  common  nouns  ;  also,  five  nouns  in  the  common  gender. 

(h)  When  do^s  a  proper  noun  become  common?  Illustrate  by  the 
following  nouns  :  china,  ware  ;  port,  wine;  morocco  and  levant,  leathers; 
macadam,  roads ;  the  guillotine. 

(c)  Give  the  feminine  corresponding  to  the  following  words:  earl, 
enchanter,  enemy,  executor,  administrator,  cousin,  brother,  testator,  protec- 
tor, marquis,  lion,  monk. 

(d)  Make  a  list  of  ten  verbal  nouns. 

(e)  Prepare  sentences  in  which  five  other  parts  of  speech  are  used 
as  nouns. 

(/)  Refer  to  Gray's  Elegy,  and  select  ten  nouns  that  are  personified, 
(g)  Make  a  sentence  containing  all  the  parts  of  speech. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

A  Midday  Plunge.  —  The  first  call  to  dinner  has  sounded, 
and  not  a  fellow  lags  behind.  But  before  they  go,  in  they  go  ! 
This  is  the  sort  of  fun  high  school  boys  have  in  Michigan, 
when  they  go  into  camp.  In  the  picture  on  the  next  page,  the 
teachers  and  the  seniors  show  at  this  end,  while  the.  freshmen 
and  the  younger  boys  are  at  the  upper  end  of  the  picture. 

Tell  how  the  boys  of  your  school  enjoy  themselves. 


460  Grammar 


A  Midday  Plunge. 
Tawas  Beach,  Michigan. 

III.     PRONOUNS 

Classification  of  Pronouns.  —  According  to  .use,  pronouns 
are  divided  into  five  classes.  (1)  Personal^  (2)  relative^ 
(3)  interrogative^  (4)  demonstrative^  and  (5)  indefinite. 

Personal  Pronouns.  —  A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  in- 
dicates by  its  form  whether  it  represents  the  speaker,  the 
person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  spoken  of.  (1)  The  pro- 
nouns denoting  the  speaker  are  JT,  singular  ;  and  we^  plural. 
They  are  called  the  first  personal  pronouns,  (2)  The 
pronouns  denoting  the  person  spoken  to,  are  you^  or  thou^  in 
the  singular,  and  you^  or  ye^  in  the  plural.  They  are 
called  the  second  personal  pronouns.  (3)  The  person 
spoken  of  is  represented  by  the  pronouns,  Ae,  she^  and  it^  in 
the  singular;  and  they^  in  the  plural.  They  are  called  the 
third  personal  pronouns. 


Singular 

Plural 

(1)  Nominative 

I 

we 

Possessive 

my  or  mine 

our  or  ours 

Objective 

me 

us 

The  Antecedent 


461 


Singular 

Plural 

(2) 

Nominative 

you 

thou 

you 

Possessive 

your  or  yours      thy  or  thine 

your  or  yours 

Objective 

you 

thee 

you 

Maisculine 

Feminine          Neuter 

Common 

(3) 

Nominative 

he 

she              it 

they 

Possessive 

his 

her  or  hers       its 

their  or  theirs 

Objective 

him 

her               it 

them 

The  Antecedent.  —  The  noun  or  substantive  for  which 
the  pronoun  stands  is  called  its  antecedent.  The  pronoun 
is  said  to  agree  with  this  antecedent  in  person,  gender,  and 
number,  but  its  case  depends  on  its  use  in  the  sentence  in 
which  it  is  found.     In  the  sentence, 

Arthur  hardly  thought  of  his  friends  outside  until  the 
school-bell  rang, 

the  antecedent  of  his  is  Arthur.  His  is  third  person, 
masculine  gender,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  an- 
tecedent Arthur. 

The  word  it  is  often  used  jn  an  indefinite  way  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence,  as  It  rains ;  it  snows  ;  it  follows;  it 
happens  ;  it  seems.  In  such  case,  it  has  no  antecedent,  but 
it  is  said  to  be  used  impersonally. 

The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence 
in  which  the  logical  subject  is  found  after  the  predicate 
verb,  as.  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  comply  with  your  request. 
By  arranging  the  sentence  in  the  following  way,  this  use 
may  be  better  understood. 

it    for  me  to  comply  with  your  request 
is 

impossible 
This  is  equivalent  to 

for  me  to  comply  with  your  request 

is 

impossible 


462  Grammar 

When  it  is  thus  used,  it  is  said  to  be  an  expletive.  The 
antecedent  of  it  in  this  sentence  is  for  me  to  comply  with 
your  request. 

The  Wrong  Antecedent.  —  Errors  are  frequently  caused 
by  the  use  of  the  wrong  antecedent.  The  rule  is  that  the 
pronoun  refers  for  its  antecedent  to  the  nearest  noun  which 
has  been  previously  mentioned.  If  you  use  too  many  pro- 
nouns, it  will  be  hard  to  keep  track  of  them,  and  of  their 
antecedents,  with  the  result  that  you  will  make  some 
awkward  mistakes,  and  will  say  what  you  never  in- 
tended to  say. 

Barrett  Wendell  quotes  an  instance  of  this  kind  in  a 
telegram  which  appeared  in  a  Boston  newspaper. 

Atlanta,  Ga.,  Dec.  23, 1889.  H.  W.  Grady  died  this  morning. 
He  was  born  at  Athens,  Ga.,  in  1851.  His  father  was  a 
wealthy  business  man  of  Athens,  and  although  a  Union  man, 
went  with  his  State  when  she  seceded.  He  was  killed  while 
fighting  before  Petersburg,  where  he  commanded  a  North 
Carolina  regiment.  The  funeral  has  not  yet  been  definitely 
arranged,  but  he  will  be  buried  in  Atlanta,  probably  on 
Thursday. 

In  this  last  statement,  as  the  sentence  stands,  the  pro- 
noun he  can  have  but  one  antecedent,  the  father  who  died 
in  1864,  instead  of  the  son  who  died  in  1889. 

Repetition  of  Pronouns.  —  A  striking  example  of  how  a 
careful  writer  avoids  confusion  from  the  repetition  of  pro- 
nouns is  found  in  the  following  sentence. 

The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father  :  for  if  he  should  leave  his 
father,  his  father  would  die. 

—  Genesis  xliv.  ^2. 

Study  also  this  sentence  from  Longfellow,  where  similar 
care  is  shown. 


Pronouns  463 

If  the  mind,  that  rules  the  body,  ever  so  far  forgets  itself  as 
to  trample  on  its  slave,  the  slave  is  never  generous  enough  to 
forgive  the  injury,  but  will  rise  and  smite  the  oppressor. 

—  Longfellow. 


A  Japanese  Holiday. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON   PICTURES 

A  Japanese  Holiday.  —  Were  you  on  this  little  junket?  Let 
your  fancy  play,  and  think  out  some  little  story.  Write  it  or  tell  it. 
Make  it  a  girl's  story.  How  did  you  come  to  be  in  the  party  ?  What 
was  the  day's  program  ?  How  do  Japanese  young  folks  enjoy  them- 
selves? 

A  Day's  Outing.  —  Suppose  you  had  a  visitor  from  Japan,  a  school- 
mate, perhaps ;  how  would  you  plan  for  a  day  in  the  open  air,  by  rail, 
or  on  the  water,  or  an  automobile  ride  in  your  own  neighborhood  ? 
or  a  day  in  the  city  parks  ?  or  a  trip  to  the  country  ?  or  a  hay  ride  ? 
or  a  watermelon  party,  if  you  live  in  the  South?  Write  your  account, 
or  give  it  orally. 

Cautions  with  Regard  to  the  Use  of  Pronouns.  —  1.  Note  the 
use  of  the  nominative  form  in  expressions  like  It  is  I,  It  is 
they.  The  subject  of  the  verb  to  be  in  all  forms  except  the  in- 
finitive, takes  the  nominative. 


464  Grammar 

2.  Make  the  pronoun  agree  with  its  antecedent.  Avoid 
the  use  of  their  in  sentences  like  the  following :  Every  hoy  and 
girl  must  pay  his  own  way.  Or  holding  up  a  book  before  the 
class,  Who  has  lost  his  book  ?  It  is  allowable  to  say,  Every 
boy  and  girl  must  pay  his  or  her  own  way,  and  Who  has 
lost  his  or  her  book  ?  But  this  is  a  roundabout  phrase,  and 
the  use  of  the  masculine  for  both  genders  is  correct  and 
shorter. 

3.  Do  not  use  too  many  personal  pronouns  in  a  sentence, 
and  arrange  them  so  as  to  avoid  confusion. 

4.  Do  not  use  the^n  for  those  or  these,  as  in  the  sentence, 
Those  books  are  Tom's. 

5.  Make  the  attribute  complement  agree  in  case  with  the 
subject  of  the  verb.  I  knew  it  (objective)  to  be  him.  I  thought 
it  (nominative)  was  she. 

6.  Watch  your  cases  in  interrogative  sentences.  Especially 
avoid  the  us6  of  who  for  tvhom  in  questions  like  the  following : 
Whom  are  you  going  to  invite  ?  Invite  is  transitive,  and  whom 
is  its  direct  object,  in  the  objective  case. 

7.  Sometimes  a  clause  or  sentence  is  used  as  the  object.  In 
such  case,  avoid  changing  the  nominative  or  predicate  pronoun 
of  the  subordinate  clause  int»  the  objective.  Tliere  arose  a 
question  as  to  who  should  pay  the  expenses  of  the  trip.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  compound  preposition  as  to  is  the  clause  who  should 
pay  the  expenses  of  the  trip.  Who  is  therefore  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  not  in  the  objective.  In  the  sentence,  /  could  7iot 
distinguish  who  it  was,  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  coidd 
distinguish  is  the  clause  who  it  was.  Who  is  the  predicate  of 
this  clause,  and  hence  in  the  nominative.  Who  shall  I  tell  her 
called  f  is  correct,  not  whom. 

8.  Do  not  mistake  as  and  than  for  prepositions,  and  make  the 
pronoun  objective  when  it  should  be  nominative.  As  and  than 
are  conjunctions,  uniting  similar  constructions.  He  is  taller 
than  /.     Mary  is  as  old  as  she. 

9.  Note  the  use  of  the  possessive  in  expressions  like,  /  had 
not  heard  of  his  coming.    Do  not  use  the  objective. 


Pronouns  465 

10.  Make  the  pronoun  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  number. 
The  ear  often  deceives  us  as  to  which  word  is  the  antecedent 
of  the  pronoun.  This  is  shown  in  the  sentence,  If  any  one  oj 
our  friends  makes  a  mistalcej  we  hate  to  tell  him  so.  There  is 
a  disposition  on  the  part  of  careless  students  to  use  them  in- 
stead of  himj  because  friends  is  plural.  But  friends  is  not  the 
antecedent  of  him..  Its  antecedent  is  one,  which  is  singular, 
hence  him  is  singular.  So,  in  the  sentence,  Let  everybody  come 
to  the  office  and  get  his  tickets.     Everybody  is  singular. 

11.  Avoid  the  use  of  myself,  except  for  emphasis.  In  the 
sentence.  An  invitation  came  in  the  mail  for  you  and  me,  do  not 
use  myself  for  me. 

Relative  Pronouns.  —  The  relative  pronoun  has  two  func- 
tions in  the  sentence.  It  represents  its  antecedent^  and  at 
the  same  time  acts  as  a  connective.  The  relative  pronouns 
are  who^  which,  that,  and  what,  and  as  when  used  after  the 
word  such.     In  the  sentences, 

There  is  the  man  that  I  saw. 

Where  is  the  family  that  once  lived  here  ? 

It  expresses  exactly  what  I  mean. 

the  italicized  words  are  relative  pronouns. 

In  the  first  sentence,  that  is  in  the  objective  case,  the 
direct  object  of  saw.  The  second  that  is  the  subject  of 
lived,  and  is  in  the  nominative.  In  the  third  sentence, 
what  is  equivalent  to  that  which,  the  sentence  then  reading. 
It  expresses  that  which  I  mean.  That  is  the  object  of  the 
transitive  verb  expresses.  Which  is  the  object  of  mean, 
in  the  objective  case. 

Who  is  used  for  persons ;  which  is  used  for  things,  and 
that  is  used  for  both  persons  and  things. 

A  relative  pronoun  may  he  used  as  the  subject  of  a  clause ; 
as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb ;  or  as  the  object  of  a 
preposition ;  and  as  the  possessive  modifier  of  a  noun. 
These  uses  are  thus  shown  : 


466  Grammar 

This  is  the  gentleman  that  called  yesterday. 
This  is  the  gentleman  that  you  wished  to  see. 
This  is  the  man  of  whom  I  spoke  to  you. 
There  is  the  lady  whose  fan  you  found. 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns.  —  These  are  formed  by 
adding  ever  and  soever  to  the  relative  pronouns.  They 
have  the  same  constructions  as  relative  pronouns. 

Interrogative  Pronouns.  —  Who^  which.,  and  what.,  when 
used  in  asking  questions,  are  called  interrogative  pronouns. 
Who  refers  to  persons,  what  to  things,  and  which  to  both 
persons  and  things.  If  the  interrogatives  are  joined  to 
nouns,  they  are  termed  interrogative  adjective  pronouns. 

Who  are  going  ? 
Whose  book  is  that  ? 

In  the  first  sentence,  who  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ;  and 
in  the  second  sentence,  whose  is  an  interrogative  adjective 
pronoun. 

Inflection  of  Relatives  and  Interrogatives.  —  Who^  as  a 
relative  and  as  an  interrogative,  is  thus  declined  : 

Singular  and  Plural 
Nominative  who 

Possessive  whose 

Objective  whom 

Demonstrative  Pronouns.  —  This^  with  its  plural  these ; 
and  that.,  with  its  plural  those.,  are  called  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns. They  point  out  in  a  definite  manner  the  persons, 
places,  or  things  to  which  attention  is  intended  to  be  called. 
This  is  the  place,  the  center  of  the  grove. 

Here,  this  is  used  as  a  demonstrative. 

Indefinite  Pronouns.  —  Some  pronouns,  as  either.,  neither^ 
each.,  any.,  some.,  such.,  many.,  many  a,  etc.,  are  indefinite  in 
character.     They  are  often  used  adjectively. 


Exercise  in  the  Use  of  Pronouns         467 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 

Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid, 
The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

The  italicized  words  are  indefinite  pronouns.  Many  a  is 
an  indefinite  adjective  pronoun. 

One,  none,  other,  several,  few,  and  all  may  be  considered 
as  indefinite  pronouns.  One  may  be  used  in  both  singu- 
lar and  plural. 

One  never  knows  what  to  do  in  such  a  case. 
One's  own  condition  is  to  be  considered. 
I  do  not  care  for  the  big  ones. 

Any  and  some  are  plural,  except  when  used  with  one. 

Did  you  see  any  (one)  of  the  family  ? 

I  saw  some  (plural). 

I  saw  some  one  (singular). 

EXERCISE  IN  THE   USE  OP  PRONOUNS 

Exercise  judgment  as  to  the  proper  word  to  use  in  the  following 
sentences.  If  more  than  one  use  is  correct,  state  this  to  be  the  case. 
Give  your  reason  in  eacli  case. 

1.  He  knew  it  to  be  (her  or  she)  by  her  walk. 

2.  I  knew  that  it  was  (she  or  her)  as  soon  as  I  saw  her. 

3.  Who  can  beat  to  the  schoolhouse   door,   you   or  (me 
or  I)? 

4.  Every  one  of  your  cousins  sent  (their,  his)  regards. 

5.  Marie  is  no  taller  than  (he  or  him). 

6.  I  like  to  hear  (him  or  his)  playing  on  the  violin. 

7.  I  admire  (him  or  his)  playing  on  the  violin. 

8.  Every  one  of  the  class  contributed  something  except 
(she,  her). 

9.  Some  friends  and  (myself,  me  or  I)  were  invited. 

10.  What  would  you  do  if  you  were  (me  or  I)  ? 

11.  No  one  should  allow  (himself,  themselves)  to  be  im- 
posed on. 


468 


Grammar 


12.  (Who  (yr  whom)  did  you  say  was  invited  ? 

13.  (Who  or  whom)  do  men  say  that  he  is  ? 

14.  Nobody  in  (his,  their)  right  mind  would  believe  that. 

15.  Between  you  and  (me,  I)  I  am  much  in  doubt  about  it. 

16.  It  depends  on  how  you  and  (I,  myself,  me)  decide. 


The  Fujiyama  Bridge,  Japan. 
Made  of  twisted  wistaria  vine. 


EXERCISES  BASED   ON  PICTURES 

Pujiyama  Bridge,  Japan.  —  It  would  be  something  to  tell,  if  you 
had  crossed  this  bridge,  made  of  twisted  wistaria  vine.  Visit  this 
scene,  in  iraagin-ation,  and  tell  a  little  travel  story,  weaving  in  what 
you  see  in  this  picture,  and  what  you  can  add,  that  you  do  not  see. 

1.  Or  tell  what  you  do  see  in  the  picture.  There  are  enough  elements 
in  the  picture  to  make  quite  an  interesting  story.  Write  a  story,  using 
the  characters  shown  in  the  picture. 

2.  Mount  Fujiyama.  —  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  mountains 
in  the  world,  travelers  tell  us.  Look  up  an  account  of  a  visit  to  this 
mountain;  or  to  some  other  famous  mountain,  or  volcano.  Or  tell 
of  a  trip  that  you  have  made,  or  heard  about.    Give  the  story  orally. 


Adjectives  469 

IV.    ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives.  —  Words  that  limit  or  modify  the  meaning 
of  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  word  used  as  an  equivalent  of  a 
noun,  are  called  adjectives. 

In  the  sentence,  /  Tmve  bought  five  yoke  of  oxen,  Jive  limits 
the  "word  yoke.  In  the  sentence,  That  is  a  beautiful  scene,  the 
adjective  beautiful  modifies  the  word  scene. 

Limiting  Adjectives.  —  Limiting  adjectives  either  point 
out  the  object  that  is  named ;  or  indicate  the  number  or 
quantity.  Limiting  adjectives  may  be  (1)  pronominal 
adjectives  ;   (2)  numeral  adjectives ;  or  (3)  articles. 

Pronominal  Adjectives.  —  When  pronouns  are  joined  to 
a  noun,  as  Whose  book  is  that  ?  What  plan  do  you  recom- 
mend ?  Which  road  shall  I  take  ?  they  are  called  adjec- 
tive pronouns.,  or  pronominal  adjectives. 

Numerals.  —  Words  denoting  number  are  numeral 
adjectives.  They  are  cardinal,  as  one,  two,  three,  four, 
five,  one  thousand,  two  millions ;  and  ordinal,  as  first, 
second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  thousandth,  two-millionth. 

Articles.  —  A,  an,  and  the  are  known  as  articles.  A  is 
used  before  consonants,  as,  a  man;  an  is  used  before 
vowels,  as,  an  egg  ;  the  is  used  before  either  vowels  or  con- 
sonants. 

Descriptive  Adjectives.  —  Adjectives  that  modify  the 
meaning  of  tlie  words  to  which  they  belong  are  called 
descriptive  adjectives.  Bright,  cool,  clear,  green,  white, 
intelligent,  etc.,  are  descriptive  adjectives. 

Comparison  of  Adjectives.  — The  modification  of  an  adjec- 
tive by  inflection  or  otherwise,  to  indicate  degrees  of  the 
quality  expressed,  is  called  comparison.  There  are  three 
degrees  of  comparison,  the  positive,  the  comparative,  and 
the  superlative. 


470  Grammar 

Positive  Degree.  —  The  positive  degree  is  the  simple 
form  of  the  adjective  ;  as,  small.,  fine^  sweety  happy ^  discreet., 
picturesque. 

Comparative  Degree.  —  The  comparative  degree  indicates 
a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  quality  expressed  in  the 
positive  degree ;  as,  smaller^  finer ^  sweeter^  happier^  less 
picturesque.  The  comparative  degree  considers  but  two 
objects. 

Superlative  Degree.  —  The  superlative  degree  denotes  the 
highest  or  lowest  degree  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the 
positive  degree.  The  superlative  degree  considers  three 
or  more  objects. 

Methods  of  Comparison.  —  Adjectives  are  compared  in 
three  ways. 

1.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable,  and  some  adjectives  of  two 
syllables,  are  compared  by  adding  r  or  er  to  the  positive,  for 
the  comparative ;  and  st  or  est  for  the  superlative.     As, 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

tall 

taller 

tallest 

discreet 

discreeter 

discreetest 

2.  Some  adjectives  of  two  syllables  and  all  adjectives  of 
three  syllables  are  compared  by  prefixing  more  or  less  to  the 
positive  for  the  comparative ;  and  most  or  least  for  the  super- 
lative.    As, 

Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

discreet  more  discreet  most  discreet 

careful  less  careful  least  careful 

3.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly ;  as. 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

bad,  ill,  or  evil 

worse 

worst 

far 

farther,  further 

farthest,  furthest 

good 

better 

best 

fore 

former 

first  or  foremost 

Adjectives  471 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

late 

later 

last 

little 

less 

least 

ny  or  much 

more 

most 

near 

nearer 

next,  nearest 

old 

older  or  elder 

oldest  or  eldest 

4.  Some  adjectives  lack  the  positive  degree ;  as,  further^ 
outer  J  inner  J  upper. 

Some  Adjectives  Not  Compared.  —  On  account  of  their 
meaning,  some  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  comparison. 
Numbers,  of  course,  come  under  this  head.  Some  writers 
do  not  consider  that  adjectives  denoting  color  can  be  com- 
pared. Pronominal  and  indefinite  adjectives,  and  the 
articles  a,  aw,  and  the^  cannot  be  compared. 

Cautions  Concerning  the  Use  of  Adjectives.  —  1.  Do  not  use 

too  many  adjectives.     Anything  like  the  excessive  use  of  adjec- 
tives tends  to  weaken  the  style. 

2.  Do  not  say  "different  than.^^  This  expression  is  in- 
correct. 

3.  Be  careful  in  your  use  of  this  and  that,  these  and  those, 
with  the  words  kind  and  sort.  If  the  noun  modified  is  singu- 
lar, the  word  modifying  it  must  also  be  singular.  /  do  riot  like 
this  kind  of  flower.  Can  you  tell  the  names  of  these  khids  of 
apples  f 

4.  Do  not  use  a  after  kind  of  and  sort  of.  What  kind  of 
man  is  he  9    Not,  what  kind  of  a  man. 

5.  Watch  your  use  of  than  after  the  comparative.  I  like 
this  house  better  than  any  other  house ;  not  than  any  house,  which 
would  imply  that  this  was  not  a  house. 

Equivalents  for  Adjectives.  —  1.  A  noun  used  in  apposition 
with  another  noun ;  as,  Oeorge  Eliot,  the  novelist,  was  a  writer  of 
marked  ability.  Here  novelist,  a  noun,  has  the  function  of  an 
adjective,  as  has  also  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  as,  Eliofs 
novels.  , 


472  Grammar 

2.  A  noun  used  as  an  adjective ;  as,  They  decided  to  build  a 
brick  sidewalk.  TJiere  is  a  good  example  of  a  macadam  road. 
They  sang  an  old  college  song.     Tliat  is  for  campaign  purposes. 

3.  A  prepositional  phrase ;  Who  could  ever  forget  her  labor 
of  love? 

4.  Participles ;  as,  A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned.  Com- 
ing events  cast  their  shadows  before.  They  fled  in  time  from  the 
burning  building. 

5.  Participial  phrases ;  as.  Soldiers  like  the  Hessians,  hired 
to  serve  a  foreign  country,  are  seldom  respected. 

6.  Kelative  clauses ;  The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  his  soul 
is  fit  for  treasons. 

7.  Pronouns  with  an  adjective  use  (pronominal  adjectives); 
as,  Whose  book  is  that  ?    Their  home  is  pleasant. 

Constructions  of  Adjectives.  —  Adjectives  that  describe 
or  limit  are  said  to  be  attributive  in  construction. 

When  the  adjective  describes  or  limits,  and  at  the  same 
time  adds  to  the  predicate,  it  is  called  a  predicate  adjective. 
Predicate  adjectives  may  be  attributive  or  objective  cample- 
mentSy  as  in  The  ground  is  white  tvith  snow.,  where  white  is 
an  attributive  complement.  I  think  I  shall  paint  my  boat 
white  this  year.  Here,  white  is  used  as  an  objective  (fac- 
titive) complement.  The  object  boat  receives  the  action 
of  the  transitive  verb  shall  paint  in  such  a  way  as  to  pro- 
duce a  change  in  the  object.  It  becomes  white.  This  use 
is  Gdlled.  factitive. 


EXERCISE    IN  DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES 

Weaving  in  Words.  —  Let  one  pupil  tell  orally  the  story  of  Little 
Red  Ridimj  Hood.  Make  in  class  a  list  of  descriptive  adjectives 
such  as  might  well  apply  to  the  little  girl,  the  pathway  through  the 
forest,  her  grandmother,  the  cottage  in  which  she  dwelt,  the  wolf,  its 
appearance,  and  its  voice.  Then  write  the  story,  weaving  in  words 
of  the  list. 


Transitive  Verbs 


473 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


A  Nook  in  the  Woods.  — 

When  and  where  did  you 
come  upon  such  a  spot  as 
this  ?  Were  you  out  with 
your  dog  and  gun,  after 
rabbits ;  or  hunting  with 
the  camera;  or  gathering 
ferns ;  or  out  with  your 
school  fellows  for  field 
daisies  or  marguerites  ;  or 
just  out  for  a  stroll,  alone 
or  with  a  chum  ?  or  is  it 
a  nook  on  the  old  farm 
where  you  used  to  live  not 
so  long  ago  ?  Is  it  north, 
east,  south,  or  west  ? 


1.   Tell  the    class    about 


it. 


PTuaograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foole. 

A  Nook  in  the  Woods. 
There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods. 
—  Lord  Byron. 


2.  A  Picnic.  —  Write  or 
give  orally  an  account  of  a 
day's  outing,  spent  in  some 
such  spot  as  this. 

3.  In  Camp.  —  The  brook  doesn't  show  here.  But  the  scene  re- 
minds you  of  the  camp  you  occupied  one  summer.     Tell  about  it. 

V.    VERBS 

Verbs.  — Of  the  parts  of  speech,  the  most  important  are 
the  verbs.  Verbs  assert  being,  action,  or  state.  They 
are  transitive  or  intransitive. 

Transitive  Verbs.  —  A  verb  is  said  to  be  transitive  if  the 
action  represented  by  it  is  not  completed  in  the  verb 
itself,  but  passes  over  from  the  subject  to  the  object.  7^e 
heavens  declare  the  glory  of  G-od,  and  the  firmament  showeth 
his  handiwork.     Here,  the  action  is  said  to  pass  over  from 


474  Grammar 

heavens,  the  subject,  to  glori/,  the  object ;  and  from  firma- 
menU  the  subject,  to  handiwork,  the  object.  The  verbs 
declare  and  showeth  are  transitive. 

In  this  sentence,  glory  and  handiwork  are  said  to  be  the 
direct  objects  of  the  verbs  declare  and  showeth. 

Where  the  action  of  the  verb  passes  over  from  the  sub- 
ject to  the  object  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  change  in 
the  object,  this  object  is  said  to  be  the  factitive  object.  As, 
ffe  made  the  water  wine.  Wine  is  said  to  be  the  factitive 
object. 

Intransitive  Verbs.  —  Intransitive  verbs  are  verbs  in 
which  the  action  is  completed  in  the  verb  itself.  For  men 
must  laugh,  while  women  weep,  so  runs  the  world  away. 
Here,  the  action  in  the  verbs  laugh,  weep,  and  runs,  does 
not  pass  over  to  any  object,  but  is  completed  in  the  verbs 
themselves.     They  are,  therefore,  said  to  be  intransitive. 

A  few  verbs,  ordinarily  intransitive,  take  what  is  called  a 
cognate  object;  as.  He  died  a  noble  death.  He  lived  a  life  oj 
honor.    In  such  case,  you  may  consider  them  as  transitive  verbs. 

Misuse  of  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs.  —  Errors  in 
the  use  of  the  verbs  lie  and  lay,  rise  and  raise,  sit  and  set 
are  all  too  common.  Lie,  rise,  and  sit  are  intransitive  ; 
while  lay,  raise,  and  set  are  transitive.  Seat,  allied  to 
set  in  meaning,  is  transitive. 

Note  the  following  sentences. 

Intransitive :  I  sit  at  my  writing  desk. 

The  hen  is  sitting. 

You  lie  awake  in  the  morning. 

You  rise  at  the  sound  of  the  rising  bell. 
Transitive :    You  set  the  chair  aside. 

The  maid  sets  the  house  in  order. 

The  cook  sets  the  bread  the  night  before  she 
bakes. 


Copulative  Verbs  475 

Transitive :     Your  mother  sets  the  table. 

The  farmer's  wife  sets  i  the  hen. 
You  lay  the  paper  down,  after  reading  it. 
You  lay  your  work  aside. 
The  hen  lays  an  egg. 
You  lay  the  blame  on  some  one. 
You  raise  the  window,  an  alarm,  a  subscrip- 
tion. 

Copulative  Verbs.  —  Some  intransitive  verbs  are  copula- 
tive. That  is,  they  act  as  the  copula  or  bond  between  the 
subject  and  the  predicate.  The  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences  are  copulative. 

He  is  honest  He  seems  industrious.  She  looks  sweet. 
He  became  indignant.     They  waxed  eloquent 

Be  sure  to  use  adjectives,  not  adverbs,  after  copulative 
verbs. 

It  tastes  bitter  {not  bitterly).  She  looked  beautiful  {not 
beautifully).  I  feel  bad  {not  badly).  It  smells  sweet  {not 
sweetly).  He  looked  fierce  {not  fiercely).  In  the  sentence,  He 
looked  fiercely  at  me,  looked  is  not  a  copulative  verb. 

Attribute  Complement.  —  Some  writers,  in  the  sentence.  That 
rose  is  sweet,  instead  of  regarding  is  as  the  copula,  and  sweet  as 
the  predicate,  consider  is  as  the  predicate  and  sweet  as  the 
attribute  complement  of  the  predicate.  This  complement  may 
be  a  noun  or  an  adjective.  He  is  our  strong  supporter.  Thai 
rose  is  unusually  fragrant. 

Auxiliary  Vecrbs.  —  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  which  help 
to  form  the  modes  and  tenses  of  other  verbs.  They  are : 
be  Qam^  ^«,  are.,  was.,  were.,  etc.),  have  (has^  had},  do  (^does.,  did}., 
shall.,  will.,  can.,  may.,  must.,  might,  could,  would,  and  should. 


1  The  verb  set  is  sometimes  intransitive,  as :  The  sun  sets ;  concrete 
sets  slovily.  The  incorrect  form,  The  hen  is  setting,  is  heard  so  con- 
stantly that  it  has  almost  become  "  sanctioned  by  usage." 


476  Grammar 

Principal  Parts.  —  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are 
the  parts  which  determine  its  conjugation  ;  for  example, 
a?w,  was^  been;  happen^  happened^  happened.  These  are 
the  principal  parts  of  to  he  and  of  to  happen. 

The  principal  parts  are, 

1    the  present  indicative,  first  person,  singular;  as,  come; 

2.  the  past  indicative,  first  person,  singular;  as,  came; 

3.  the  past  participle ;  as,  come. 

The  principal  parts  may  be  remembered  by  this  formula :  I 
write,  to-day  ;  I  wrote,  yesterday ;  I  have  written,  some  time  in 
the  past. 

Regular  and  Irregular  Verbs.  —  Verbs  are  distinguished 
by  the  manner  in  which  they  form  their  principal  parts 
as  regular  and  irregular. 

Regular  Verbs.  —  Regular  verbs  form  their  past  indica- 
tive and  past  participle  by  adding  <,  d^  or  ed  to  the  present 
indicative.  Reward^  rewarded.,  rewarded;  provide^  pro- 
vided., provided ;   builds  built,  built. 

Irregular  Verbs. — Irregular  verbs  form  their  past  indic- 
ative and  past  participle  by  some  vowel  change  from  the 
present  indicative  ;  as,  swim.,  swam.,  swum;  eat,  ate.,  eaten; 
strike,  struck,  struck. 

Guarding  Against  Confusion  of  Tenses.  —  Care  should  be 
taken  to  guard  against  confusion  in  the  tenses  of  such 
verbs  as  see,  do,  come,  ring,  and  go.^ 

Note  the  principal  parts  of  these  verbs : 


see 

see,  saw,  seen 

do 

do,  did,  done 

come 

come,  came,  come 

ring 

ring,  rang,  rung 

go 

go,  went,  gone. 

1  The  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  insists  on  con- 
stant and  careful  drill  on  the  tenses  of  these  verbs. 


Confusion  of  Tenses  477 

Also,  note  how  these  words  are  correctly  used  in  sentences : 

I  see  the  birds  now. 

I  saw  the  parade  yesterday. 

I  have  seen  the  Board  Walk  at  Atlantic  City. 

I  do  the  best  I  can,  now. 

I  did  the  best  I  could,  then. 

I  have  done  the  best  I  could,  at  every  opportunity. 

I  come  to  pay  you  what  I  owe  you. 

il  came  to  the  conclusion  yesterday  that  I  would  call  on  you. 

I  have  come  to  look  at  matters  differently,  since  I  saw  you. 

Charles,  ring  for  the  janitor,  please. 

I  rang  for  him  a  few  minutes  ago,  sir. 

I  have  rung  for  him  quite  a  number  of  times. 

I  go  home  to-day. 

I  went  to  the  country  yesterday. 

I  have  gone  to  see  him  quite  frequently. 

Voice. —  Voice  is  that  property  of  transitive  verbs  which 
denotes  whether  the  subject  is  acting  or  acted  upon. 

Intransitive  verbs  have  no  voice. 

Active  Voice.  —  Verbs  are  in  the  active  voice  when  their 
subjects  denote  the  person  or  thing  acting^  as,  James  found 
a  fine  swimming-hole  this  morning. 

Passive  Voicoi  —  A  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice  when  its 
subject  is  represented  as  the  receiver  of  the  action,  as, 
William  was  struck  %  a  passing  automobile  last  Wednesday. 

Mode.  —  The  mode  of  verbs  denotes  the  manner  in  which 
action,  being,  or  state  is  represented.  There  are  six  modes  : 
indicative,  subjunctive,  potential,  imperative,  infinitive,^  and 
participial. 

The  indicative  mode  is  used  to  state  a  fact,  or  to  ask  a 
question  about  a  fact. 


1  Many  writers  do  not  class  the  infinitive  as  a  mode. 


478  Grammar 

God  will  raise  up  friends  to  fight  our  battles  for  us. 
Shall  we  acquire  strength  by  irresolution  or  inaction  ? 

The  indicative  mode  is  used  in  the  great  mass  of  conversa- 
tion, and  of  writing. 

Progremve  and  Emphatic  Forms,  —  Such  forms  as,  He 
is  playing  hall ;  He  was  performing  the  duties  of  his  office^ 
are  cdUed  progressive  forms.  And  such  forms  as,  /  do  en- 
joy swimming  in  the  lake ;  He  does  behave  as  well  as  ought 
to  he  expected.,  are  said  to  be  in  the  emphatic  form. 


Columbia  River,  Oregon. 
Looking  towards  the  State  of  Washington. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Columbia  River,  Oregon.  — Describe  this  scene  as  if  you  were  stand- 
ing on  the  bank,  and  taking  in  the  view. 

If  you  had  to  plan  a  holiday  for  your  class,  and  this  was.  where  it 
was  meant  to  be  spent,  how  would  you  go  about  it?  What  amuse- 
ments would  you  offer?    What  arrangements  would  be  necessary? 

Subjunctive  Mode.  —  The  subjunctive  mode  denotes  a 
doubt  or  a  contingency.     I  do  not  know  whether  I  can  go. 


Mode  479 

If  he  apply  himself,  he  may  pass  his  examinations.     If  you 
go,  I  shall  remain. 

In  the  subjunctive  mode  we  suppose  something  that  may 
happen,  or  express  a  wish  that  a  certain  thing  would  hap- 
pen, or  a  fear  lest  something  might  happen.  We  doubt  if 
a  certain  statement  be  true,  or  are  alarmed  lest  it  may  not 
prove  true. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  among  writers  and  speakers 
to  do  away  with  the  distinctive  forms  of  the  subjunctive 
and  in  expressing  doubt  or  condition,  to  use  the  indicative  . 
with  some  conjunction  denoting  that  doubt  or  condi- 
tion. For  instance,  instead  of  saying,  I  doubt  if  that  asser- 
tion be  true.,  the  tendency  is  to  say,  I  doubt  if  that  assertion 
is  true. 

Uses  of  the  Subjunctive.  —  The  subjunctive  may  be  used, 
1.  To  express  a  wish,  a  prayer,  or  a  desire.  Halloived  be  thy 
name ;  thy  kingdom  come ;  thy  will  be  done  on  earth  as  it  is  in 
heaven. 

2.  To  express  a  contingency.  If  I  receive  a  letter  in  the 
meantime,  it  will  not  he  necessary  for  me  to  return. 

3.  To  indicate  a  condition  regarded  as  doubtful.  If  the 
rain  stops,  we  mxiy  visit  you  to-morrow. 

4.  To  express  a  condition  or  conclusion  contrary  to  fact. 
If  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died. 

5.  To  express  purpose.     Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged. 

6.  To  indicate  a  concession.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I 
trust  him. 

7.  After  words  of  command.  See  to  it  that  there  be  no  fur- 
ther disorder. 

8.  After  words  of  fearing.     /  fear  lest  he  may  be  sick. 

9.  In  indirect  questions.  The  direct  question  would  be,  Is 
this  tale  true  ?  Using  this  question  indirectly,  you  might  say, 
/  do  not  know  whether  this  tale  be  true  or  not.  What  shall  I  do? 
is  the  direct  question.  What  I  may  do,  remains  to  be  seen, 
contains  an  indirect  question,  in  the  subjunctive. 


480  Grammar 

Potential  Mode.  —  The  potential  mode  denotes  power  oi 
possibility,  /may  have  an  opportunity  to  visit  you  in  Decern- 
her,  I  might  pay  you  a  small  amount  to-morrow.  I  should 
like  to  help  you.    /must  do  the  best  /can.    /would,  ^/' /could. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  subjunctive,  applies  with 
equal  force  to  the  potential  mode.  It  is  fast  giving  way 
to  the  indicative,  so  much  so  that  many  writers  do  not 
recognize  it  as  a  mode  at  all. 

Imperative  Mode.  —  The  imperative  mode  is  used  to  ex- 
press command,  exhortation,  entreaty,  or  permission.  Shut 
the  door.  Let  us  have  peace  !  Do  not  continue  in  this  way 
of  doing. 

The  subject  of  the  imperative  is  usually  omitted.  When 
I  say,  Mien,  shut  the  door,  Ellen  is  not  the  subject,  but  is  in 
the  vocative  nominative.     You,  understood,  is  the  subject. 

Infinitive  Mode.  —  As  the  word  implies,  the  infinitive  is  not 
limited  by  person  or  number.  It  does  not,  like  the  finite 
verb,  make  any  assertion,  but  the  assertion  is  assumed. 

The  infinitive  combines  the  nature  of  a  verb  with  that  of  a 
noun.  It  has  the  modifiers  of  a  verb,  both  adverbial  and  ob- 
jective, while  at  the  same  time  it  has  all  the  uses  of  a  noun.  It 
may  be  called  a  verbal  noun.     To  have  health  is  a  blessing. 

Another  form  of  verbal  noun  is  the  participle  in  -mgr,  which 
is  by  some  writers  termed  the  gerund.  Having  health  is  a  bless- 
ing. We  heard  of  his  coming  before  we  saw  him.  Might  living 
brings  its  own  reward. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  infinitive,  other  than  the  gerund. 
They  are  the  present  infinitivey  and  the  perfect  infinitive. 

ACTIVK  Passivb 

Present:  to  gain  to  be  gained 

Perfect :   to  have  gained  to  have  been  gained 

The  present  infinitive  is  called  the  root  infinitive. 
Uses  of  the  Infinitive.  —  1.   The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb.    To  be  happy  is  not  the  chief  aim  in  life. 


Verbals  481 

2.  It  may  be  the  predicate  of  a  sentence ;  as  is  the  case 
with  believing  in  the  sentence  just  used.  He  seemed  to  relish 
his  breakfast. 

3.  It  may  be  used  adverbially.     /  came  not  here  to  talk. 

4.  It  may  be  used  as  the  direct  object.  He  desires  to  pur- 
chase it. 

5.  It  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition.  What 
is  the  object  of  to  go  in  that  sentence? 

6.  The  root  infinitive,  together  with  its  subject  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  verbs  of  saying, 
thinking,  believing,  knowing,  telling,  etc.  /  know  him  to  be  a 
designing  villain. 

Caution  as  to  Infinitives.  —  Be  careful  to  let  the  tense  of  a 
statement  containing  an  infinitive  show  in  the  principal  verb, 
and  not  in  the  infinitive.  /  intend  to  go;  I  intended  to  go;  I 
had  intended  to  go.  The  verb  ought  is  an  exception  to  this  rule, 
being  the  same  in  the  present  and  the  past.  I  ought  to  go;  I 
ought  to  have  gone. 

Verbals.  —  There  are  two  forms  of  the  verb  that  are 
called  verbals.     They  are  the  gerund  and  the  participle. 

The  Gerund. — The  gerund  is  a  verbal  noun;  that  is, 
it  is  derived  from  the  verb,  but  is  used  as  a  noun.  It  is 
formed  by  adding  -ing  to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  or  the 
root  infinitive.    It  is  very  similar  to  the  infinitive  in  meaning. 

The  gerund  has  some  of  the  functions  bo^h  of  the  noun  and 
the  verb. 

(a)  As  a  noun  it  may  be : 

(1)  the  subject  of  a  verb ; 
.     (2)  the  object  of  a  verb  ; 

(3)  the  object  of  a  preposition, 

(p)  As  a  verb  it  may  be  : 

(4)  modified  by  an  adverb,  or  by  an  adverbial  phrase  ; 

(5)  or,  when  transitive,  it  may  govern  a  noun  or  pro- 

noun in  the  objective  case. 


482 


Grammar 


Examples  of  Oerund  Use.  —  The  following  are  examples  oi 
its  use  : 

1.  As  the  subject  or  complement  of  a  sentence.  Seeing  is 
believing.     Walking  is  a  fine  form  of  exercise. 

2.  As  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb.  /  like  reading  and 
writing.     I  favor  rowing  as  an  exercise.     I  admire  her  acting. 

3.  As  the  object  of  a  preposition.  I  expect  to  go  in  for  long 
distance  running.  He  is  an  expert  at  quoit  throwing.  What 
chance  is  there  now  for  swimming  in  Gunpowder  Creek  ? 

4.  As  modilied  by  an  adverb,  or  by  an  adverbial  phrase. 
Are  you  going  to  ti-y  swimming  across  ?  Do  not  attempt  jumping 
across  that  brook. 

5.  As  a  transitive  verbal,  modified  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  in 
the  objective  case.  Fishing  is  one  thing;  catching  fish  is  another. 
He  hunted  for  gold  in  Calif orniaj  hut  I  never  heard  of  his  finding  it. 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


One  —  Tw^o  —  Three !  — 

It  took  a  pretty  good  camera 
to  snap  this  picture.  Write 
an  account,  as  if  you  took 
the  snapshot.  Or  tell  about 
it,  orally,  as  if  you  were  one 
of  the  divers.  Where  is  it, 
what  were  the  circumstances, 
and  what  else  can  you  think 
of  that  is  interesting? 

How  to  Dive.  —  If  you 
know,  tell  the  class.  If  you 
do  not  know,  read  up  on  it,  or 
talk  with  an  expert  diver, 
and  acquaint  yourself  and  the 
class  with  the  points  in  div- 
ing. 

The  Participle.  —  The 
participle    is    a    verbal 
adjective ;  that  is,  it  is  derived  from  the  verb,  but  is  used 


One  —  Two  —  Three  ! 


Tense  483 

as  an  adjective.  The  word  participle  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  particeps^  a  partaker  of.  It  is  so  called  because 
the  participle  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  verb  and  of  the 
adjective. 

This  is  a  gift  from  loving  friends. 

And  children,  coming  home  from  school, 
Look  in  at  the  open  door. 

—  Longfellow. 

Both  loving  and  coming  denote  action^  and  are  therefore 
verbal  words  ;  in  the  first  sentence,  loving  modifies  friends, 
while  in   the  second  sentence,  coming  modifies  children; 
they  are  therefore  adjectives. 
In  the  sentence. 

Firing  his  gun,  the  guide  called  the  other  members  of  the 
party  to  the  camp. 

Firing  is  a  participle.  As  an  adjective,  it  modifies  the 
noun  guide.  As  a  transitive  verb,  it  governs  gun,  in  the 
objective  case. 

Gret  the  distinction  clear.  A  verbal  in  -ing  is  a  gerund,  if 
it  performs  the  part  of  a  noun.  It  is  a  participle,  if  it 
performs  the  part  of  an  adjective. 

Forms  of  the  Participle.  —  The  participle  has  three 
forms  : 

1.  The  Present  Participle.  —  This  is  the  participle  in  -ing, 
and  expresses  the  action  or  state  as  now  in  progress  or  existence. 

Now  Morn,  her  rosy  steps  in  the  eastern  clime 
Advancing,  strewed  the  earth  with  orient  pearl. 

— Milton. 

2.  Tlie  Past  Participle.  —  This  expresses  action  or  state  as 
completed. 

Something  attempted,  something  done, 
Has  earned  a  night's  repose. 

—  Longfellow. 


484  Grammar 

3.    The  Perfect  Participle.  —  This  expresses  action  as  just 
completed  ;  as,  Having  Jini shed  breakfast,  he  departed. 


Active 

Passive 

Present    examining 

Past         

Perfect    having  examined 

being  examined 

examined 

having  been  examined 

Tense.  —  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action,  being,  or 
state.  I  appreciate  your  kindness,  Ihave  appreciated  it^  and 
shall  ever  appreciate  it.  Here,  time  present,  past,  and  future 
is  indicated  hy  the  form  of  the  verb ;  that  is,  by  its  tenses. 

Tenses  of  the  Indicative.  —  There  are  six  tenses  in  the 
indicative,  as  shown  below. 

Present  I  examine  ;  I  am  examining ;  I  do  examine. 

Past  I  examined ;  I  was  examining  ;  I  did  examine. 

Future  I  shall  examine ;  I  shall  be  examining. 

Perfect  I  have  examined. 

Past  Perfect       I  had  examined. 
Future  Perfect  I  shall  have  examined. 

Definition  of  the  Tenses.  —  The  present  tense  marks 
present  time,  or  time  now  passing  or  existing.  The  past 
tense  marks  past  time,  indefinitely.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  imperfect.  The  future  tense  marks  time  to  come,  in- 
definitely.    These  three  tenses  are  called  the  primary  tenses. 

The  perfect  tense,  or  preserit  perfect,  as  it  is  sometimes 
termed,  marks  past  time,  completed  at  the  present.  The 
past  perfect,  or  pluperfect,  as  it  is  often  termed,  marks  past 
time,  completed  before  some  other  past  time  referred  to. 
The  future  perfect  tense  marks  future  time,  completed  be- 
fore some  other  future  time  referred  to.  These  three 
perfect  tenses  are  called  secondary  tenses. 

Tenses  of  the  Potential.  —  There  is  no  future  tense  in 
the  potential  mode.  The  tenses  are  indicated  by  the  use 
of  auxiliary  verbs. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures 


485 


Present 

Past 

Perfect 


I  can. 


may,  or  must  examine. 


I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  examine. 


I  can, 


may, 


or  must  have  examined. 


Past  Perfect  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  examined. 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. — Note   the   four   following 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mode. 

Present  If  I  be,  or  If  I  am. 

Past  If  I  were,  or  If  I  was. 

Perfect  If  I  have  been. 

Past  Perfect  If  I  had  been. 


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Same  Against  Same. 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 
Samfc  Against  Same.  —  This  is  a  remarkable  picture.  The 
man  at  the  right  of  the  saw  is  also  the  man  at  the  left  of  the 
saw.  Every  man  in  the  picture  shows  twice  in  the  picture, 
once  on  the  right  side,  and  once  on  the  left.  See  if  you  can 
study  it  out,  and  find  each  man  on  the  left.     How  was  it  done  ? 


486  Grammar 

If  you  have  ever  taken  a  picture  like  that  on  the  preceding  page ,  show 
the  class  how  it  was  doue,  and  exhibit  your  picture.  How  was  this  pic- 
ture posed,  and  how  was  the  clever  deception  disguised  ? 

Person  and  Number.  —  Verbs  are  said  to  have  person 
and  number^  agreeing  with  their  subjects.  Thus,  Thei/ 
bought  their  tickets  last  night.  Bought  is  said  to  be  in  the 
third  person^  plural  number^  agreeing  with  thet/^  its  subject. 

Infinitives,  gerunds,  and  participles  do  not  have  person 
or  number. 

Agreement  of  Verbs.  —  The  following  suggestions  with 
regard  to  the  agreement  of  verbs  with  their  subjects  in 
person  and  number,  are  worth  keeping  in  mind. 

1.  A  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is  used  generally  in  the 
second  person.     Little  Boy  Blue,  come,  blow  your  horn ! 

2.  A  subject  in  the  singular  takes  its  verb  in  the  singular ; 
a  plural  subject  takes  a  plural  verb.  He  is  the  freeman  whom 
the  truth  makes  free,  and  all  are  slaves  beside. 

3.  A  collective  noun,  when  singular  in  form,  may  take  a 
plural  verb  if  the  speaker  is  thinking  of  the  individuals  mak- 
ing up  the  collective  noun  ;  as,  A  herd  of  deer  were  grazing  i7i 
the  park,  scattered  here  and  there.  But  where  you  have  reference 
to  the  collective  noun  as  one  thing,  it  takes  the  singular  verb. 
The  herd  was  frightened  at  my  approach. 

So,  too,  with  the  collectives  like  committee  and  jury.  The 
committee  reports,  when  it  is  unanimous.  But  the  committee 
report,  when  there  is  a  division  of  opinion.  The  jury  brings 
in  its  verdict,  when  unanimous.  They  bring  in  their  verdict 
when  they  fail  to  agree. 

4.  When  the  subject  contains  two  or  more  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns in  the  singular,  joined  by  and,  the  verb  is  put  in  the 
plural.     As, 

And  the  evening  and  the  miming  were  the  first  day. 

—  Genesis  i 
Holland  and  Belgium  are  in  the  lowlands. 


Agreement  of  Verbs  487 

6.  If  the  nouns  thus  joined  by  and  are  names  of  things 
which  may  be  considered  as  one  thing,  the  verb  takes  the 
singular ;  as,  Tliat  wheel  and  axle  you  sold  me  is  broken.  Here 
wheel  and  axle  is  the  name  of  a  single   machine. 

6.  If  the  nouns  joined  together  by  and  are  but  names  for 
the  same  person  or  thing,  they  take  a  singular  verb. 

For  a  laggard  in  love  and  a,  dastard  in  war, 
Was  to  wed  the  fair  Ellen  of  brave  Lochinvar. 

—  Scott. 

7.  When  a  noun  in  the  plural  denotes  the  title  of  a  book, 
or  a  single  sum  of  money,  it  takes  a  singular  verb.  Dr.  John- 
son's ^^  Lives  oft^ie  Poets  ^'  does  iiot  come  up  to  the  standard  of  his 
best  works.  Three  million  dollars  was  expended  by  the  company 
for  betterments. 

8.  When  the  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the  subject  thus  joined  by 
and  are  limited  by  the  adjective  pronouns  each,  every,  no,  etc., 
a  singular  verb  is  used.  Each  man,  each  woman,  and  each  child 
receives  a  portion.  Evei-y  book  and  every  paper  is  accounted  for. 
No  countenance  and  no  assistance  is  ever  with  my  consent  to  be 
extended  to  that  cause. 

9.  None  is  generally  used  in  the  singular ;  as.  There  is 
none  that  doeth  good ;  no,  not  one.  —  Psalm  xiv.  Few,  many, 
most,  some,  several,  etc.,  take  a  plural  verb.  Many  are  called, 
but  few  are  chosen, 

10.  When  a  verb  separates  its  subjects,  it  agrees  with  the 
first.     Each  man  contributes  his  share,  and  the  officers,  theirs. 

11.  When  the  subject  is  made  up  of  several  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns in  the  singular  joined  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  is  in  the 
singular.     Neither  Charles  nor  John  is  invited. 

12.  When  the  subjects  of  a  verb  thus  connected  by  or  or 
nor  are  in  different  persons,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  subject 
next  to  it.     Either  you  or  he  is  to  go. 

13.  When  there  are  two  subjects  connected  by  the  con- 
junction as  well  as,  the  verb  takes  the  person  and  number  of  the 
first.     Johnson,  as  well  as  the  other  writers  named,  takes  this  stand. 

14.  In  a  long  sentence,  one  is  liable  to  mistake  the  noun 


488  Grammar 

in  a  modifying  phrase  for  the  subject,  and  thus  put  the  verb 
in  the  wrong  number.  Tlie  use  of  too  many  modifying  words 
weakens  the  force  of  a  sentence.  Use,  and  not  words,  is  the  subj  ect 
of  the  verb,  which  is  therefore  singular.  This  mistake  is  more 
likely  to  occur  in  speaking  than  in  writing,  as  the  ear  catches  the 
plural  of  words,  and  unconsciously  puts  the  verb  in  the  plural. 
15.  When  the  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun,  the  verb  really 
agrees  with  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun.  We  say.  There  is 
only  one  of  the  men  that  is  an  Englishman,  because  one  and  not 
men  is  the  antecedent  of  that.  But  in  the  sentence.  That  is 
one  of  the  weakest  arguments  that  have  been  advanced,  arguments 
and  not  one  is  the  antecedent  of  that. 

Sequence  of  Tenses.  —  As  a  rule,  the  tense  of  the  verb  in 
the  subordinate  clause  changes  when  the  tense  of  the  verb 
in  the  principal  clause  changes.  Jdo  mt  think  he  will  go. 
I  did  not  think  he  would  go.  The  usage  winch  governs  this 
relation  is  called  the  sequence  of  tenses,  or  harmony  of  tenses. 

A  present  fact,  or  a  general  rule,  should  be  stated  in 
the  present  tense.  Where  did  you  say  my  pencil  is? 
(Not  was.)  Of  what  State  did  Charles  say  Columbus  is 
the  capital  f     (Not  tvas.) 

In  a  complex  sentence,  see  to  it  that  both  principal  and 
subordinate  clauses  are  in  the  tenses  that  serve  to  bring 
out  the  facts  you  desire  to  express.  Note  these  illustra- 
tive sentences. 

I  think  he  is  here.  I  think  he  was  here.  I  think  he  will  he 
here.  I  thought  he  was  here.  I  thought  he  had  been  here.  I 
thought  he  would  be  here. 

I  shall  come,  if  you  wish  it.  I  should  come,  if  you  wished  it. 
I  should  have  come,  if  you  had  wished  it.  If  I  can  buy  that 
property,  I  shall  do  so.  If  I  could  buy  that  property,  I  should 
do  so.     If  I  could  have  bought  that  property,  I  should  have  done  so. 

If  I  have  a  fishing  rod  I  will  lend  it  to  you.  If  I  had  a  rod  I 
would  lend  it  to  you.    If  I  had  had  a  rod  I  would  have  lent  it  to  you. 


Uses  of  Shall  and  Will  489 

Careful  Use  of  Verbs.  —  Keep  the  following  suggestions 
in  mind.  (1)  Distinguish  between  Can  If  and  May  If 
Can  If  asks  about  your  ability  to  do  a  certain  thing.  A 
correct  answer  would  be,  I  do  not  know  whether  you  can  or 
not.  Try  it.  May  J,  asks  permission.  The  answer  would 
be,  Tes  or  No. 

(2)  Do  not  use  had  before  ought.  I  ought  to  have  done 
it.     (Not  I  had  ought.) 

(3)  When  two  or  more  auxiliaries  are  used  with  refer- 
ence to  one  principal  verb,  care  should  be  exercised  that 
the  proper  auxiliaries  be  used.  This  guidebook  will  answer 
for  any  route  that  has  been  or  shall  be  suggested.  Careless 
speakers  are  in  danger  of  saying,  that  has.,  or  shall  be  sug- 
gested. 

Uses  of  Shall  and  Will.  —  Care  should  be  taken  to  dis- 
tinguish between  shall  and  will. 

The  following  suggestions  should  constantly  be  kept  in 
in  mind  : 

(a)  Will.  —  1.  In  declarative  sentences  will  in  the  first  per- 
son expresses  a  resolution  or  a  promise  ;  as, 

Fourth  Citizen.  We7/  hear  the  will !  Kead  it,  Mark 
Antony ! 

All.     The  will !  the  will !     We  will  hear  Caesar's  will ! 

—  Julius  Ccesar,  Act.  iii,  Sc.  ii,  Shakespeare. 

2.  In  the  second  and  third  persons  will  expresses  the  idea 
of  simple  futurity  ;  as, 

Tou  will  be  pleased  with  my  purchase. 
Mary  states  that  John  will  be  back  to-day. 

3.  In  interrogative  sentences,  however,  will  asks  concern- 
ing an  intention  or  wish  on  the  part  of  the  one  spoken  to. 
This  is  shown  in  Mark  Antony's  reply  to  the  demand  of  the 
people  to  hear  Caesar's  will.     He  says, 

Antony.       Will  you  be  patient  ?     Will  you  stay  awhile  ? 
I  have  o'ershot  myself  to  tell  you  of  it. 


490  Grammar 

Antony  is  not  urging  them  to  be  patient.  He  is  asking  them  as 
to  their  will  or  intention,  as  a  reading  of  the  passage  will  indicate. 

4.  In  interrogative  sentences,  therefore,  where  you  use  the 
first  person,  singular  or  plural,  it  would  be  foolish  to  say.  Will 
we  go  to  the  picture  show  to-night  ?  This  would  imply  that 
you  did  not  know  your  own  mind.  What  you  should  say  is, 
Shall  we  go  to  the  picture  show  ? 

ip)  Shall.  —  1.  In  declarative  sentences  shall  in  the  first 
person  is  used  merely  to  foretell ;  as,  I  shall  take  a  walk 
uptown.     I  shall  he  happy  to  come. 

2.  In  interrogative  sentences,  shall  when  used  with  the  first 
personal  pronoun,  singular  or  plural,  simply  asks  a  question 
about  a  future  fact.  Shall  1  see  him  ?  Or  it  asks  the  desire 
of  the  person  addressed.  Shall  we  me^t  you  at  the  station  f 
Shall  /  read  to  you  awhile  9 

3.  In  declarative  sentences,  shall  in  the  second  and  third 
persons  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  (a)  a  command  ;  {h)  a  threat ; 
or  (c)  a  promise. 

(a)  Fourth  Citizen.     Read  the  will !     We'll  hear  it,  Antony ! 

You  shall  read  us  the  will !     Caesar's  will ! 
(6)  He  shall  be  made  to  suffer  for  this  crime, 
(c)  You  shall  have  your  turn.     Just  be  patient. 

4.  In  interrogative  sentences  shall  denotes  simple  futurity 
in  the  second  person ;  in  the  third  person,  it  asks  the  desire  of 
the  person  addressed. 

Shall  you  be  there  to-night  ? 
ShaM  they  do  this  ? 

For  a  careful  study  of  the  uses  of  shall  and  wiU,  the  student 
is  referred  to  the  entire  passage  in  Julius  Ccesar,  Act  iii, 
Scene  ii,  lines  100-259. 

Summai-y.     Briefly  summarized,  the  rules  are  as  follows : 
(a)  In  declarative  sentences, 

1.  To  denote  futurity. 

Use  shall  in  the  first  person. 

Use  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons. 


The  Wrong  Verb  491 

I  shall  be  there. 

You  will  be  there. 

They  will  be  there. 
2.  To  denote  promise  or  determination  on  the  speaker's  part^ 
Use  will  in  the  first  person. 
Use  shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons, 

I  will  do  it. 

You  shall  do  it. 

He  shall  do  it. 
(6)  In  interrogative  sentences  the  rule  is  not  so  simple. 
Shall  I  do  it  ?  means  Do  you  wish  me  to  ? 
(  Will  If  is  used  ironically.) 
Shall  you  do  it  ?  means  Are  you  going  to  ? 
Will  you  do  it  ?  means  A^^e  you  willing  to  ? 
Shall  he  do  it  f  means  Do  you  ivish  him  to  ? 
Will  he  do  it  ?  means  Is  he  going  to  ? 
Should  and  would  are  used  much  like  shall  and  will. 

Caution  Against  Using  the  Wrong  Verb.  —  In  addition  to 
cautions  already  given  against  the  use  of  can  for  mai/^  and 
of  will  for  shall,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  between 
the  verbs  learn  and  teach,  and  also  to  be  careful  in  your 
use  of  the  verbs  bring,  take,  and  fetch.^ 

Learn  and  teach.  To  learn  is  to  receive  and  profit  by  in- 
struction ;  to  teach  is  to  give  instruction.  You  teach  some  one 
else,  or  he  teaches  you.  It  is  sometimes  proper  to  say,  I 
taught  myself. 

Bring,  take,  and  fetch.  To  bring  a  thing  is  to  convey  it  to 
the  place  where  the  speaker  is,  or  is  to  be ;  or  to  bear  it  from 
a  more  distant  place  to  a  place  nearer  the  speaker.  To  take  a 
thing,  in  this  sense,  is  to  carry  it  away.  To  fetch  has  the  two- 
fold idea  of  going  and  bringing. 

1  The  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York,  urges  that 
special  attention  be  paid  to  guarding  against  the  use  of  the  wrong  verb, 
as  can  for  may,  set  for  sit,  lay  for  lie,  learn  for  teach,  shall  for  will,  bring 
for  take,  etxi. 


492 


Grammar 


For  the  use  oi  fetch  and  bring,  refer  to  the  story  in  1  Kings 
xvii.  10,  11. 

If  the  speaker  is  going  along  with  the  one  he  addresses,  he 
may  say,  ^^  Bring  that  along  with  you."  If  he  is  not  going 
with  him  he  will  say,  "  Take  that  along  with  you."  If  the 
two  are  together,  and  the  object  is  at  some  distance  away,  he 
should  say  to  the  one  at  his  side,  "  Fetch  that  to  me,"  which  is 
the  same  as  saying,  "  Go  and  get  that,  and  bring  it  to  me." 

If  the  speaker  stands  at  one  point,  and  the  one  addressed 
at  another,  to  fetch  a  thing  he  must  go  to  some  other  point  and 
get  it,  and  then  convey  it  to  the  speaker.  To  take  it,  he  must 
convey  it  in  some  direction  other  than  toward  the  speaker. 
If  he  conveys  it  toward  the  speaker,  he  is  bringing  it. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Alaska.      The     Bear.  — 

This  is  the  United  States 
Alaskan  supply  ship.  The 
Bear.  This  ship  provides 
means  of  intercommunica- 
tion between  the  United 
States  and  Alaska.  She 
carries  the  mails,  brings 
the  teachers  and  officials 
out  to  their  work ;  and 
takes  them  back  when 
their  work  is  over,  or  when 
on  vacation.  She  brings 
out  supplies,  and  carries 
back  anything  and  every- 
thing there  is  to  offer  from  the  various  settlements. 

The  land  that  shows  on  the  left  of  the  picture  is  Siberia.  As 
the  picture  is  taken  in  Bering  Straits,  Alaska  is  on  the  right 
hand,  but  does  not  show  in  the  picture. 

Describe  a  trip  on  The  Bear,  as  if  you  had  just  taken  it.  Or  write 
it  in  the  form  of  a  letter,  composed  while  on  the  trip. 


The  Bear. 
United  States  Alaskan  Supply  Ship. 


Adverbs  493 

VI.   ADVERBS 

Adverbs.  —  An  adverb  is  a  word  that  is  used  to  limit  or 
modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  a  participle, 
or  another  adverb. 

He  spoke  rapidly.  That  girl  is  strikingly  handsome.  Com- 
ing over  to  me,  he  spoke  a  few  words  in  a  quiet  tone.  Jle  left 
the  city  very  hastily  just  before  we  arrived. 

Simple  and  Conjunctive  Adverbs.  —  According  to  their 
M86J,  adverbs  are  simple  or  conjunctive. 

Simple  Adverbs.  —  Adverbs  whose  function  is  to  modify 
some  other  word  are  simple  adverbs.  All  the  adverbs  ex- 
cept before  in  the  above  sentences  are  simple  adverbs,  as 
are  the  great  majority  of  adverbs. 

Conjunctive  Adverbs.  —  Adverbs  which  modify  some 
other  word  in  such  a  way  as  to  connect  subordinate  clauses 
with  the  main  proposition  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

List  of  Conjunctive  Adverbs.  —  The  following  are  conjunctive 
adverbs:  as,  before,  how,  until,  ivhen,  where,  while,  why,  whence, 
whether,  wherefore,  whereupon,  whereby,  wherein,  wherever,  when- 
ever. 

In  the  sentence,  He  calls  on  me  whenever  he  is  in  the  city,  the 
conjunctive  adverb  whenever  modifies  is  in  the  subordinate 
clause,  and  at  the  same  time  modifies  calls  in  the  principial 
clause,  and  joins  the  subordinate  clause  to  the  principal  prop- 
osition. 

Adverbs  Divided  According  to  Their  Meaning.  —  When  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  their  meaning,  adverbs  are  divided 
as  follows : 

1.  Adverbs  of  time;  always,  before,  never,  now,  then,  lately, 
yet,  etc. 

2.  Adverbs  of  cause;  why,  wherefore,  whence.,  etc. 

3.  Adverbs  of  assertion  and  denial;  yes,  yea,  aye,  nay,  nOy 
not,  etc. 


494  Grammar 

4.  Adverbs  of  number;  first,  secondly,  etc. 

5.  Adverbs  of  place;  as,  here,  there,  hence,  everywhere,  yon- 
der, etc. 

6.  Adverbs  of  manner;  as,  well,  ill,  better,  worse,  rapidly, 
sideways,  etc. 

7.  Adverbs  of  degree  ;  as,  so,  little,  enough,  partly,  wholly, 
almost,  etc. 

8.  Miscellaneous  adverbs;  as,  indeed,  nevertheless,  however, 
etc. 

Prepositions  Without  Their  Objects  Become  Adverbs. — 

In  a  number  of  instances,  where  the  preposition  drops  its 
object,  it  is  then  considered  as  an  adverb.  In  the  sentence, 
He  rowed  down  the  stream,  down  is  a  preposition  with 
stream  as  its  object.  In  the  sentence,  He  rowed  up 
awhile  and  then  rowed  down,  down  is  an  adverb,  having 
lost  its  object. 

Distinguishing  Between  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. —  Sev- 
eral adjectives  and  adverbs  have  the  same  form  ;  as,/a«^, 
well,  little,  much,  more,  etc. 

Adjectives  Adverbs 

That  is  ^fast  little  boat.  That  boat  goes  fast. 

He  will  get  little  sympathy.  Some  men  sleep  little. 

Of  course,  the  test  in  distinguishing  between  adjectives  and 
adverbs  is,  as  to  what  each  modifies.  If  it  modifies  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  the  word  in  question  is  an  adjective.  But  if  it  modi- 
fies a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  adverb,  it  is  an  adverb. 

In  sentences  like  He  is  considered  poor  in  spelling,  poor  does 
not  modify  is  considered.  This  is  a  copulative  verb,  and  poor 
is  the  predicate,  as  some  grammarians  say,  or  it  is  the  predicate 
complement.  Thus  poor  is  an  adjective,  modifying  he,  the 
subject.  Although  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sokes  he  became 
poor.  Here,  was  and  became  are  copulative  verbs,  and  rich 
and  poor  are  adjectives  modifying  he,  the  subject  of  the 
sentence. 


Adverbs  495 

Comparison  of  Adverbs. — Adverbs  are  compared  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  adjectives.  Some  adverbs,  how- 
ever, are  not  compared.  Many  adverbs  are  compared 
regularly  ;  as,  fa%t^  faster^  fastest ;  rapidly^  more  rapidly^ 
most  rapidly.     The  following  are  irregular  : 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

badly,  ill 

worse 

worst 

far,  forth 

farther,  further 

fai;thest,  furthest 

late 

later 

latest,  last 

little 

less 

least 

much 

more 

most 

near,  nigh 

nearer,  nigher 

nearest,  next,  nighest 

well 

better 

best 

Adverbs  Formed  From  Adjectives.  —  Many  adverbs  are 
formed  from  adjectives  by  adding  -ly.  From  the  adjec- 
tives happy ^  kind,  gracious^  forcible^  dismal^  etc.,  are  forhied 
the  adverbs  happily.,  kindly.,  graciously.,  forcibly.,  dismally, 
etc.     All  such  adverbs  are  Compared  regularly. 

Nouns  Used  Adverbially.  —  Nouns  denoting  time.,  dis' 
tance,  measure,  or  value,  are  used  adverbially,  and  may  be 
parsed  as  adverbs  ;  as,  He  is  six  feet  high.  When  are  you 
coming  home  f  He  ran  seven  miles.  That  house  cost  six 
thousand  dollars.     He  will  be  home  Tuesday, 

Introductory  Adverbs.  —  Some  adverbs  are  used  as  in- 
troductory words  ;  as,  there,  indeed,  now,  etc.  There  was 
a  man  named  John.  Indeed,  there  seems  to  be  some  doubt 
about  that.  Now  Barabbas  was  a  robber.  Such  words 
are  sometimes  called  expletives. 

Compound  Adverbs.  —  Some  adverbs,  such  as  hand-in- 
hand,  in-and-out,  round-about,  arm  in  arm,  nowadays,  man 
by  man,  dollar  for  dollar,  piece  by  piece,  word  for  word, 
sentence  by  sentence,  etc.,  are  parsed  as  compound  adverbs. 
Some  writers  call  such  expressions  phrasal  adverbs. 


496 


Grammar 


Idiomatic  Uses  of  Adverbs.  —  English  has  certain  expres- 
sions which  have  all  the  authority  of  established  usage, 
but  which  are  hard  to  explain  by  the  ordinary  rules  of 
grammar.  These  expressions  are  termed  idioms^  and  their 
use  is  called  idiomatic  English,  In  the  sentence,  He  is 
stone  deaf,  stone  modifies  deaf,  an  adjective,  and  it  is  there- 
fore an  adverb.  Yet  stone  is  or  should  be  a  noun.  All 
you  can  do  is  to  say  that  stone  is  an  adverb,  used  idiomati- 
cally. Again,  in  the  sentence.  She  does  not  care  a  copper 
for  anyhodys  opinion,  copper  is  an  adverb,  although  it  is 
generally  considered  a  noun.     Its  use  is  idiomatic. 

Yes  and  No.  —  Yes  and  no^  when  standing  alone  as  the 
answer  to  a  question,  are  to  be  parsed  as  adverbs.  Do  you  in- 
tend to  go  9     Yes. 


A  Broad  Survey. 
EXERCISES   BASED  ON   PICTURES 


Photograph  by  Elmer  L.  Foote. 


A  Broad  Survey.  —  Standing  at  the  top  of  a  mountain,  there 
is  a  fine  opportunity  for  a  broad  survey.     You  can  see  here 


Prepositions  497 

what  you  could  not  see  from  some  lower  level.  This  traveler 
is  probably  taking  time  to  consider  what  is  the  best  course  to 
take. 

Vocational  Guidance.  —  The  purpose  of  this  guidance  is  to 
give  you  a  fuller  and  a  broader  view  of  the  years  that  lie  ahead 
of  you.  There  is  danger  of  a  student's  drifting  into  some  call- 
ing for  which  he  is  poorly  fitted,  and  of  his  being  kept  out  of 
something  for  which  he  is  or  might  be  prepared.  The  high 
school  is  the  place  for  you  to  decide  on  what  to  do  in  later  life, 
and  to  prepare  for  that  work. 

Let  a  committee  named  in  class  take  up  the  vocations  that  are  or 
may  be  open  to  the  members  of  the  class,  and  discuss  them. 

VII.   PREPOSITIONS,   CONJUNCTIONS,   INTER- 
JECTIONS 

Prepositions.  —  Prepositions  are  words  used  with  a  noun 
or  pronoun  to  make  a  phrase  limiting  some  other  word. 
The  noun  or  pronoun  is  called  the  object  of  the  preposition. 
They  are  said  to  show  the  relation  of  their  object  and  the 
word  to  which  that  object  is  joined.  Do  you  remember  the 
story  of  Hood's  Bridge  of  Sighs?  Here,  sighs  is  the  object 
of  the  preposition  of ;  and  of  is  said  to  show  the  relation 
between  sighs  and  bridge. 

The  phrase  of  sighs  is  an  adjective  element,  modifying  bridge. 
You  will  note  that  the  use  of  the  preposition  binds  the  sentence 
closer  together.  It  is  not,  however,  a  connective  in  the  sense 
that  conjunctions,  relative  pronouns,  and  conjunctive  adverbs 
are  connectives. 

In  the  sentence.  He  comes  from  England,  the  prepositional 
phrase  from  England  is  used  adverbially,  modifying  the  verb 
comes. 

Adverbial  and  Adjective  Prepositional  Phrases. — By  a 
study  of  the  following  sentences,  you  will  be  able  to  note 


498  Grammar 

the  difference  between  prepositional  phrases  used  adverbi- 
ally and  those  used  as  adjectives 

Adverbial  Adjeotivk 

Fish  are  used  for  food.  He  is  a  man  of  iron. 

He  is  moving  to  the  country.  Avoid    the    excessive  use   of 

He  escaped  by  running.  adjectives. 

They  went  in  a  hurry  from  Thomas  Jefferson  of  Virginia 

house  to  house.                    '  was  elected  president. 

The  Right  Preposition.  — It  is  important  to  use  the  right 
preposition  with  certain  adjectives  and  verbs.  A  list  is 
given  on  page  292. 

Preposition  and  Object.  —  The  preposition  is  said  to 
govern  its  object.  Thus  it  puts  its  object  in  the  objective 
case.  The  noun  thus  governed  is  said  to  be  in  the  objec- 
tive case,  as  the  object  of  the  preposition. 

Preposition  Preceding  or  Following  Its  Object.  —  Usually 
the  prepositio7i  precedes  its  object;  as,  He  went  to  toivn. 
Here  the  preposition  to  precedes  its  object  town.  But  in 
poetry,  and  in  interrogative  sentences,  or  sentences  using 
interrogative  pronouns,  the  preposition  frequently  follows 
its  object.    The  following  sentences  will  illustrate  this  use. 

0  stream  descending  to  the  sea,  thy  mossy  banks  between ! 
Where  do  you  hail  from  ?  What  are  you  throwing  at  ?  Whom 
are  you  speaking  to?    What  are  you  talking  about? 

Preposition  in  Composition  with  Verbs.  —  Prepositions  are 
frequently  used  in  composition  with  verbs;  as,  Thei/  carried 
off  all  the  prizes.  I  will  laugh  at  their  calamity.  Here,  to 
carri/  off,  and  laugh  at,  ate  verbs  compounded  with  prepo- 
sitions. Prizes  is  the  object  of  carried  off,  a  transitive 
verb ;  and  calamity  is  the  object  of  will  laugh  at,  a  transi- 
tive verb.  The  verb  and  preposition  are  sometimes  writ- 
ten together,  as  undergo,  overtake. 


Prepositions  499 

Like  as  a  Preposition.  —  Some  writers  count  like  as  a 
preposition.  She  looks  like  her  sister.  Others  count  like 
as  an  adjective,  and  supply  to^  making  the  sentence,  She 
looks  like  (to}  her  sister.  They  count  sister  the  object  of  to^ 
understood,  and  not  the  object  of  like^  as  a  preposition.  It  is 
simpler,  and  therefore  better,  to  count  like  as  a  preposition. 

Adverbs  and  Prepositions.  —  Some  words,  according  to 
their  use  in  sentences,  are  used  both  as  prepositions  and 
adverbs;  as,  since^  aboife,  below,  down. 

I  have  not  seen  him  since,  adverb.  /  have  not  seen  him  since 
yesterday,  preposition. 

T7ie  roses  twined  above,  adverb.  TJie  skyscraper  towers  above 
the  church  steeples,  preposition. 

They  went  below,  adverb.     /  shot  below  the  mark,  preposition. 

Get  down  before  you  get  hurt,  adverb.  He  went  down  the 
street,  preposition. 

Verbals  in  -ing  Used  as  Prepositions.  —  Many  words 
originally  verbals  in  -ing  are  now  used  as  prepositions;  as, 
calling,  regarding,  considering,  respecting,  touching,  etc.  2 
called  regarding  that  offer  of  yours.  Considering  his  diffi- 
culties, he  did  well.  What  did  you  decide  upon,  respecting 
the  matter  of  church  repairs  ? 

What  May  Be  Objects  of  Prepositions.  —  Any  equivalent 
of  a  noun  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

1.  A  pronoun.  He  who  comes  up  to  his  own  standard  of 
greatness,  must  have  had  a  very  low  standard  of  it. 

—  Ruskin, 

2.  An  adjective.    He  went  from  good  to  better. 

3.  An  adverb.  Let  the  great  world  spin  for  ever  down  the 
ringing  grooves  of  change. 

—  Tennyson. 

4.  A  gerund.    One  must  be  poor  to  know  the  luxury  of  giving. 

—  George  Eliot 


500 


Grammar 


6.   A  noun  phrase.     None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 
None  named  thee  but  to  praise. 

— Halleck. 
6.   A  noun  clause.    From  what  he  told  me,  I  do  not  think  he 
will  go. 

Prepositions  in  Composition.  —  Prepositions  used  in  com- 
position^ change  an  intransitive  verb  to  a  transitive  verb. 
Laugh  and  look  are"  intransitive  verbs,  but  in  the  sentences, 
He  laughed  at  "my  plight ;  and,  HeJooked  at  the  house,  the 
verbs  laughed  at  and  looked  at  are  transitive  compound  verbs* 


Ohio  River  Steamers  Caught  in  the  Ice. 
EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Caught  in  the  Ice.  —  This  is  not  an  Arctic  scene.  It  is  a  snap- 
shot of  Ohio  liiver  steamers  caught  in  the  ice,  when  the  Ohio 
froze  over.  It  was  taken  at  Cincinnati.  One  of  the  many  bridges 
that  cross  the  river  at  this  point  is  shown  faintly  in  the  back- 
ground. The  high  school  to  which  you  belong,  let  us  say,  has 
given  a  half-holiday,  to  enable  you  to  view  a  scene  you  may 
never  again  witness. 


Coordinate  Conjunctions  501 

Tell  the  story  of  this  visit.  The  steamboats  may  not  look  like 
steamboats  with  which  you  are  familiar.  The  one  with  steam  up  is 
called  a  side-wheeler,  while  the  one  to  the  left  of  it  is  called  a  stern- 
wheeler.  The  colored  bands  showing  on  the  smoke  stacks  indicate  to 
what  line  of  steamers  each  belongs. 

Conjunctions.  —  Conjunctions  are  words  used  to  join 
words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences. 

Classes  of  Conjunctions.  —  There  are  two  main  classes  of 
conjunctions,  coordinate  and  subordinate. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions.  —  Coordinate  conjunctions  join 
(a)  two  words ;  (5)  two  phrases ;  (c)  two  dependent 
clauses ;  (i?)  two  independent  clauses,  or  sentences. 

(a)  Hand  and  foot  are  needed  in  mountain  climbing. 
(h)  We  grow  ourselves 

Divine  by  overcoming  with  mere  hope 

And  (with)  most  prosaic  patience. 

—  Mrs.  Browning. 

(c)  Flowers  are  the  sweetest  things  God  ever  made  and  for- 
got to  put  a  soul  into. 

—  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 

(d)  None  preaches  better  than  the  ant,  and  she  says 
nothing. 

—  Franklin. 
Coordinate  conjunctions  are  divided  as  follows  :         , 

1.  Copulative,  denoting  addition ;  as,  and,  both,  also,  more- 
over, further,  etc. 

2.  Disjunctive,  denoting  separation  between  ideas  not  quite 
alike;  as,  either,  neither,  7ior,  else,  otherioise,  etc. 

3.  Adversative,  suggesting  opposition  of  meaning ;  as,  buty 
still,  yet,  notwithstanding,  however,  etc. 

4.  Illative,  denoting  effect  or  consequence ;  as,  hence,  con- 
sequently, therefore,  wherefore,  whence,  accordingly,  thus,  so,  so 
that,  etc. 

5.  Alternative,  indicating  choice  between  words  or  ideas ; 
as,  either  —  or,  or,  etc. 


502  Grammar 

6.  Correlative^  which  serve  to  connect  ideas  in  pairs;  as, 
as  —  so,  as  —  as,  so  —  as,  if —  then,  though  —  yet,  etc. 

7.  Concessive,  which  serve  to  grant  or  yield  a  point;  as, 
yet,  nevertheless,  still,  although,  etc. 

Subordinate  Conjunctions.  —  Subordinate  conjunctions  are 
used  to  introduce  subordinate  clauses. 

Subordinate  conjunctions  are  divided  into  the  following 
classes,  according  to  their  use. 

1.  Time  ;  as,  as,  while,  until,  before,  ere,  since,  after,  as  soon 
as,  as  long  as,  when,  etc. 

2.  Cause  or  reason  ;  as,  because,  for,  since,  as,  ichereas,  inas- 
much as,  etc. 

3.  Condition  or  supposition;  as,  if,  provided, supposing,  unless, 
except,  otherwise,  though,  notwithstanding,  albeit,  whether,  etc. 

4.  Purpose;  as,  that,  in  order  that,  lest,  etc. 

5.  Comparison  ;  as,   than,  etc. 

6.  Expletive;  as  that,  used  in  introducing  a  sentence.  That 
little  children  should  not  be  put  to  work,  seems  evident. 

It  is  important  to  distinguish  between  the  use  of  coordinate 
and  subordinate  connectives,  in  order  to  tell  compound  and 
complex  sentences  apart.  Coordinate  conjunctions  join  com- 
plete, independent  clauses  or  sentences,  to  make  compound 
sentences;  while  subordinate  connectives,  including  conjunc- 
tions, conjunctive  adverbs,  and  relative  pronouns,  join  depend- 
ent clauses  to  main  clauses,  thus  making  complex  sentences. 

In  the  example,  A  fool  may  talk,  but  a  wise  man  speaks  (Ben 
Jonson),  two  independent  sentences  are  joined  by  the  coordi- 
nate conjunction  but,  thus  forming  a  compound  sentence. 

In  the  three  examples  following,  the  words  as,  when,  and 
which  are  respectively  (1)  a  subordinate  conjunction;  (2)  a 
conjiinctive  adverb  ;  and  (3)  a  relative  pronoun.  They  join  the 
dependent  clauses,  as  I  knoiv  more  of  mankind;  when  a  true 
genius  appears  in  the  world ;  which  calls  its  burial  ground  *  God's 
acre,'  to  the  principal  clause  in  each  case. 


Interjections  503 

1.  As  I  know  more  of  mankind,  I  am  ready  to  call  a  man 
a  good  man  upon  easier  terms  than  I  was  formerly. 

—  Dr.  Johnson. 

2.  When  a  true  genius  appears  in  the  world,  you  may  know 
him  by  this  sign,  that  the  dunces  are  all  in  confederacy  against 
him.  —  Swift. 

3.  I  like  that  ancient  Saxon  phrase  which  calls  its  burial 
ground  '  God's  acre.'  — Longfellow. 

Interjections.  —  Interjections  are  words  used  to  give  ex- 
pression to  emotion.  The  interjection  has  no  grammatical 
connection  with  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence.  Al- 
most any  part  of  speech  may  be  used  as  an  interjection. 
When  this  is  the  case,  it  is  generally  indicated  by  the  use 
of  the  exclamation  point.     The  cry  of  Fire  I  went  quickly 

everywhere. 

« 

The  following  are  interjections :  oh,  ah,  lo,  fie,  alas,  hello, 
huzza,  hurrah,  hark,  ahem,  hist,  hey,  indeed,  good-hy,  farewell,  etc. 

Words  in  this  list,  as  well  as  many  others,  are  frequently 
used  as  interjections. 

How,  why,  see,  come,  stop,  help,  fire,  hack,  hang,  well,  hush,  he- 
hold,  there,  shame,  hegone,  get  out,  leave,  look,  "  stop,  look,  listen,^' 
look  out,  ivelcome,  nonsense,  dear  me,  heware,  safety  first,  etc. 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS,  CONJUNCTIONS,  AND 
INTERJECTIONS 

Pick  out  the  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections  in  the 
following  selections. 

If  thou  wouldst  have  me  sing  and  play 

As  once  I  played  and  sung, 
First  take  this  time-worn  lute  away 

And  bring  one  freshly  strung.  —  Moore. 

"  Charge,  Chested,  charge  !  on,  Stanley,  on ! " 
Were  the  last  words  of  Marmion.  —  Scott. 


504 


Grammar 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Bridal  Veil  Falls,  Yosemite, 


you?    If  so,  describe  them, 
city,  tell  about  it. 


Bridal      Veil     Palls.  — 

What  is  the  right  word  to 
describe  this  scene?  Before 
you  begin  to  write,  select  ten 
words  that  would  properly 
belong  to  a  description  of 
this  picture,  or  that  would 
not  be  out  of  place  in  a  care- 
ful word  picture  of  the  Falls. 
Weave  these  words,  or  as 
many  of  them  as  you  can, 
into  your  account.  When 
through,  look  over  your 
statement  or  description, 
and  cut  out  any  word  or 
phrase  that  you  do  not  like, 
or  that  you  feel  does  not 
really  belong  there. 

Is  there  a  waterfall  in  your 
vicinity?      If   not,  are   there 
cascades,  or  what  is  called 
"  the  ripples,"  anywhere  near 
If  there  is  a  notable  fountain  in  your 


VIII.     THE   RIGHT   WORD 

Using  the  Right  Word.  —  Some  words  are  nearly  alike  in 
meaning;  other  words  are  very  nearly  if  not  altogether 
opposite  in  meaning  ;  while  in  the  case  of  still  other  words, 
they  may  look  or  sound  alike  and  yet  vary,  in  meaning. 
Words  of  these  three  classes  are  termed,  respectively, 
synonyms^  antonyms^  and  homonyms. 

Synonyms.  —  Synonyms  are  Ti^ords  that  are  to  some  ex- 
tent alike  in  meaning,  but  differ  in  some  important  respect 
as  to  what  they  imply.  For  a  full  discussion  of  synonyms 
refer  to  pages  300-309. 


Homonyms  505 

Antonyms.  —  Antony m%  are  words  which  are  as  nearly 
as  possible  opposite  in  meaning.  This  bread  is  stale^ 
while  that  is  fresh.  Here,  stale  and  fresh  are  antonyms. 
Some  men  delight  to  call  evil  good.  Here  evil  and  good  are 
antonyms.  We  have  clothing  for  the  outer  man^  hut  what  we 
seem  to  lack  is  refreshment  for  the  inner  man.  Here,  outer 
and  inner  are  antonyms. 

Homonyms.  —  Words  which  at  first  glance  seem  alike, 
but  which  have  entirely  different  meanings,  are  homonyms. 
In  the  sentence,  John  Wright,  the  millwright,  cannot  write 
rite  right,  the  words  wright^  write^  rite.,  and  right  are  homo- 
nyms.    They  sound  alike,  but  differ  in  meaning. 

EXERCISE  IN  USING  THE  RIGHT  WORD 

(a)  Distinguish  carefully  between  the  following  antonyms,  using 
them  in  sentences. 

diffident,  forward  obtuse,  keen  bright,  dull 

upright,  mean  strong,  feeble  rural,  metropolitan 

pure,  coarse  happy,  wretched  loyal,  treacherous 

esteem,  reproach  lively,  morose  wealthy,  indigent 

lenient,  severe  refined,  crude  reserved,  outspoken 

(h)  Fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  homonyms,  as  indicated  in 
parentheses  at  the  end  of  each  sentence. 

1.   He  said.  Give  me ,  and  the  little  fellow  handed  him 

a (leaf,  lief).     2.   The  girl  began  to ,  and  smilingly 

said,  As  ye ,  — —  shall  ye  reap  (so,  sow,  sew).     3.   I  am 

glad  to you,  he  said.     But  we  are  short  of ,  and  we 

shall  have  to it  out  carefully  (mete,  meat,  meet).     4.   My 

little  girl,  said  he,  feed  this  to  that  herd  of (deer,  dear). 

5.   That  is  a fire  in  that (grate,  great).     6.   Sailing 

now  upon  the ,  one the  enemy their  ships  (sees, 

seize,  seas).     7.   the  ,  where  did  you that  new 

automobile  (bye,  by,  buy)?     8.    To  live  and  not ,  said  the 

tradesman,  I daily.     The  longer  I  live,  the  better  I , 


506  Grammar 

and  the  more  I ,  the  better  I  live  (die,  dye).     9.   My 

young  friend,  are  you  going  to  the ?      That's  not  ■ 

said  the  girl,  as  she  paid  her (fare,  fair).     10.   Seeing  the 

old  pastor  in  the  congregation,  they  asked to  select  the 

closing (hymn,  him). 

(c)  Use  these  homonyms  in  sentences. 

Hoes,  hose;  bin,  been;  two,  too,  to;  marshall,  martial; 
hoard,  horde ;  mean,  mien ;  grocer,  grosser ;  knead,  need ;  al- 
lowed, aloud ;  herd,  heard ;  core,  corps  ;  alter,  altar ;  bass,  base. 

Ellipsis.  —  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  from  the  sentence  of 
some  word  or  words  necessary  to  the  grammatical  con- 
struction. Its  use  is  permissible  only  where  the  mind  of 
the  hearer  or  reader  easily  supplies  the  missing  word  or 
words. 

The  following  are  examples  of  ellipsis. 

1.  The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode.  Lay  {you) 
up  for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven. 

2.  The  relative  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb.  ^Tis 
distance  {tha£)  lends  enchantment  to  the  view. 

3.  The  relative  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb.  TJiis 
is  the  place  (that)  I  meant. 

4.  A  preposition  governing  a  relative  pronoun,  both  omitted. 
He  arrived  the  day  (on  which)  the  note  matured. 

5.  A  personal  or  demonstrative  pronoun  used  as  the  ante- 
cedent of  a  relative  pronoun.  (He)  Who  steals  my  purse ,  steals 
trash. 

6.  A  subject  noun  or  pronoun,  in  polite  reply.  (I)  thank 
you, 

7.  Both  subject  and  predicate  in  questions,  where  several 
questions  are  asked.  Whose  is  this  book  ?  And  (whose  book  is) 
this  f  Where  are  you  going  f  And  you  ?  Meaning,  And  where 
are  you  going  1 

8.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode.  Will  you  go  with  U8 
to-day  f    I  shall  do  my  best  (to  go). 


Common  Errors  507 

9.  That,  introducing  a  clause.  He  declares  {that)  he  is 
innocent. 

10.  The  principal  verb,  following  an  auxiliary.  Who  knows 
this  lad  ?  I  do  (know  him).  Who  can  solve  this  problem  9  I 
can  (solve  it). 

11.  A  conditional  clause,  /  shall  be  pleased  to  help  you,  (if 
you  desire  me  to  do  so). 

12.  The  entire  sentence  except  one  important  word,  in 
answering  a  direct  question.  Did  Dick  run  in  or  out  ?  (He 
ran)  in.      Will  you  choose  this  or  that  f     (I  will  choose)  that. 

13.  A  noun  whose  meaning  is  modified  by  a  noun  in  the 
possessive  case.  What  church  did  you  attend  ?  ^S'^.  John's 
(church). 

Common  Errors.  —  It  is  not  possible  to  list  all  the  errors 
of  speech.  It  is  well  for  the  class  to  make  its  own  lists. 
The  following,  however,  are  worth  noting. 

(a)  Misuse  of  Verbs.  —  Frequent  errors  in  the  use  of  verbs  are 
made  in  written  and  spoken  language.  You  are  to  note  the 
errors  as  your  attention  is  called  to  them,  and  apply  the  rules 
of  grammar  which  are  applicable  in  each  case. 

1.  Do  not  say.  Can  I  borrow  a  pencil  ?  May  is  the  word 
to  use  here.     Can  refers  to  ability ;  may,  to  permission. 

2.  Hadn't  you  better  lay  down  for  a  while?  Lie  is  the 
word  to  use  here.  Hens  lay,  but  you  lie  down.  You  can  lay 
down  a  rule. 

3.  I  was  raised  in  Ohio.  You  mean,  I  was  reared  in  Ohio. 
Children  are  reared  ;  hogs  are  raised. 

4.  I  guess  I'll  have  to  go  now.  You  mean,  I  think  I'll  have 
to  go  now. 

5.  Fix  those  books  on  the  shelf.  You  mean,  Arrange  those 
books. 

(b)  Fill  the  blanks,  using  the  proper  word. 

1.   Abandon,  desert,  forsake.     Several  sailors the  ship  ; 

then  ajl  the  passengers it ;  and  finally,  the  captain 

it 


508  Grammar 

2.  Learn,  teach.     There  is  the  young  fellow  who me 

how  to  skate.     I myself  to  sew. 

3.  Sit,  set,  seat.     Mary, down  awhile.      yourself 

at  the  piano,  and  I  will the  table. 

(c)  Misuse  of  Nouns. —  1.  I've  got  a  raise  in  salary.  You 
mean  an  increase. 

2.  I  have  a  long  icays  to  go.  You  mean,  I  have  a  long  way 
to  go.  While  he  was  yet  a  great  way  off,  his  father  saw  him. 
It's  a  long  way  to  Tipperary. 

3.  I  met  a  party  down  town  who  says  he  knows  you.  You 
mean,  I  met  a  man,  or  a  hoy,  or  a  person,  or  somebody,  who 
knows  you.  You  might  meet  a  fishing  party,  or  a  party  of 
friends.     One  person  does  not  constitute  a  party. 

4.  He  has  a  custom  of  taking  off  his  hat  when  he  stops  to 
speak  to  a  lady.  You  mean  that  he  has  the  habit  of  taking 
off  his  hat  when  he  stops  to  speak  to  a  lady.  A  number  of 
people  have  a  custom.  One  of  them,  conforming  to  that 
custom,  has  the  habit  established  by  the  custom. 

(d)  Misuse  of  Adjectives.  —  1.  It's  a  nice  day.  You  mean, 
It's  a  pleasant  day.  When  the  jeweler  fits  a  mainspring  in  its 
place,  it  takes  a  nice  adjustment.  We  may  also  speak  of  a  nice 
discrimination. 

2.  We  have  had  an  elegant  time.  You  mean,  a  pleasant 
time.  The  word  elegant  might  apply  to  an  unusually  beauti- 
ful watch,  as  an  elegant  timepiece. 

3.  That  little  child  has  a  grand  voice.  You  mean,  perhaps, 
that  it  has  a  good  voice.  Grand  cannot  apply  to  the  voice  of 
a  child. 

4.  Well,  anyhow,  she  has  a  real  good  voice.  You  mean  a 
really  good  voice.  Good  is  an  adjective,  and  the  word  that 
modifies  it  must  be  an  adverb. 

5.  Are  bananas  healthy  ?  You  do  not  mean  that.  You 
mean,  Are  they  wholesome,  or  good  to  eat? 

(e)  Misuse  of  Pronouns.  —  1.  I  know  who  you  mean.  That  is 
wrong.  What  you  should  say  is,  I  know  whom  you  mean^  Mean 
is  a  transitive  verb,  and  whom  is  its  object,  in  the  objective  case. 


Exercises  in  Promoting  Good  English     509 

2.  Between  you  and  /,  that  man  is  unreliable.  You  mean, 
between  you  and  me.  Between  is  a  preposition,  governing  both 
you  and  me,  in  the  objective  case. 

3.  Everybody  should  manage  their  own  affairs.  You  mean, 
should  manage  his  own  affairs.  Everybody  is  singular,  and  so 
is  his.     They  both  have  the  same  antecedent. 

4.  I  know  it  is  him.      It  should  be,  I  know  it  is  he. 

5.  I  know  it  to  be  he.  It  should  be,  I  know  it  to  be  him.  It  is 
in  the  objective,  and  him  agrees  with  it,  to  &e  being  an  inlinitive. 

6.  Who  is  there  ?     It  is  me.     You  should  say,  It  is  /. 

7.  Are  you  sure  that  is  our  party  ?  Yes,  it  is  them.  You 
mean.  It  is  they, 

(/)  Misuse  of  Adverbs.  —  1.  I  feel  badly.  You  mean,  I  feel 
bad. 

2.  I  feel  some  better  now.  What  you  mean  to  say  is,  I  feel 
somewhat  better  now. 

3.  When  I  go  to  the  country,  the  sounds  at  night  make  me 
feel  kind  o'  lonesome.  You  mean,  rather  lonesome.  Or  you 
can  say,  make  me  feel  lonesome. 

4.  I  never  remember  a  hotter  day  than  yesterday.  You 
should  say,  I  do  not  remember  a  hotter  day. 

5.  It  is  noble  to  bravely  die.  Say,  It  is  noble  to  die  bravely. 
Do  not  place  the  adverb  between  the  parts  of  the  infinitive. 

(g)  Misuse  of  Prepositions  arid  Conjunctions.  —  1.  John  is 
home  now.     Say,  is  at  home  now. 

2.  This  thing  is  no  use  now.     Say,  It  is  of  no  use  now. 

3.  William  fell  off  of  the  roof.     Say,  He  fell  off  the  roof. 

"    4.   I  do  not  know  if  he  will  go.     You  mean,  I  do  not  know 
whether  he  will  go  or  not. 

EXERCISES  IN  PROMOTING  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Class  List  of  Errors.  —  Let  a  committee  of  three  watch  the  every- 
day speech  of  the  English  class  for  a  week,  and  report  on  the  errors  that 
occur  in  the  ordinary  speech  of  the  class.  Quote  the  exact  language 
used,  indicate  the  error,  but  do  not  mention  names. 


510 


Grammar 


Richelieu  on  the  Dike  at  La  Rochelle.  —  Motte. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Richelieu.  —  This  is  a  scene  from  French  history.  Cardinal 
Richelieu  was  the  prime  minister  of  Louis  XIII.  He  had  two 
aims ;  one,  to  make  the  French  king  absolute  in  France ;  and 
the  other,  to  make  France  supreme  in  Europe.  He  broke  the 
power  of  the  Huguenots  in  France,  and  captured  La  Rochelle, 
which  they  had  planned  to  make  their  capital.  The  picture 
shows  him  in  the  hour  of  triumph,  on  the  dike  of  the  city  just 
taken.     This  was  in  1628. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  Richelieu. — Look  up  your  authority  in  the 
school  or  public  library ;  or  in  some  good  high  school  history. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  French  Huguenots.  —  In  what  American 
colonies  did  the  Huguenots  form  an  important  element  of  the  popu- 
lation ? 

EXERCISE  IN  DISCRIMINATION 

Using  the  Right  Word.  —  Fill  in  the  blanks  with  the  right  word, 
and  indicate  the  reason  for  your  choice. 

(a)  The  Right  Verb.  —  1.  I  hope  our  teacher  will  let  us  (try 
or  make)  that  experiment  to-day. 

2.  What  do  you  (guess,  suppose  or  think)  we  shall  have  to- 
day in  laboratory  work  ? 


Exercise  in  Discrimination  511 

3.  She  (do  n't  or  does  nH)  skate  very  well  on  ice. 

4.  I  (had  or  would)  rather  not  go  to  the  theater  to-night. 

5.  I  shall  try  (and  or  to)  go  with  you  this  afternoon. 

6.  I  (expect  or  suspect)  he  will  not  visit  here  again. 

7.  He  told  me  to  do  it,  and  I  (done  or  did)  it. 

8.  I  shall  attend  to  the  matter,  I  (promise  or  assure)  you. 

(b)  The  Right  Noun  or  Pronoun.  —  1.  Let's  go  to  the  (depot 
or  station)  to  meet  the  noon  train. 

2.  That  is  the  (person  or  party)  that  asked  for  you. 

3.  If  you  look  any  one  straight  in  the  face,  the  chances  are 
that  (he  or  they)  will  flinch. 

4.  Our  country  expects  every  man  to  do  (his  or  their)  duty. 

5.  I  prefer  (this  or  these)  kind  of  apples. 

(c)  The  Eight  Adjective.  —  1.  I  feel  pretty  (badly  or  bad) 
to-night. 

2.    He  is  fairly  well  (posted  or  informed)  in  history. 

(d)  The  Right  Adverb.  —  1.  Does  this  hat  look  (good  or  well) 
enough  to  wear  to-night  ? 

2.  I  would  just  as. (soort  or  lief)  not  go  to  the  matinee. 

3.  I  am  (kinda,  kind  o\  kind  of  or  somewhat)  interested  in 
that  subject. 

4.  This  book  is  not  (so  or  as)  interesting  as  that. 

5.  My  mother  is  feeling  (nicely  or  well)  to-day. 

6.  I  shall  be  ready  (right  away  or  immediately). 

7.  Is  your  father  expected  home  to-day  ?  Not  (as  or  thaJt) 
I  know. 

8.  I  have  not  studied  (any  or  at  all). 

9.  He  left  here  (some  or  about)  ten  days  ago. 

10.  Try  some  of  this  candy.     It  is  (real  or  really)  good. 

(e)  The  Right  Preposition  or  Conjunction.  —  1.  I  seldom 
(or  or  if)  ever  see  a  play  nowadays.  Seldom  or  never,  is  also 
correct. 

2.  Here,  boys,  take  this  bag  of  peanuts,  and  divide  it  (be' 
tween  or  among)  the  three  of  you. 

3.  Put  on  your  skates  and  do  (as  or  like)  I  do. 


512  Grammar 

Formation  of  Words.  —  The  stem  of  a  word  is  the  basis 
of  that  word.  It  contains  the  root  meaning  of  the  word  ; 
as  in  ex-tend,  tend  =  to  stretch. 

A  prefix  is  an  element  occurring  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  and  used  to  modify  the  idea  expressed  by  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  word.  This  is  seen  in  the  use  of  ex-  in 
ea;-tend. 

A  suffix  is  an  element  joined  at  the  end  of  the  base,  to 
express  a  modifying  idea.  As,  hate-ful.  Both  the  prefix 
and  the  suffix  to  a  word  are  used  as  subordinate  elements 
of  that  word. 

77ie  base  of  a  word  may  be  a  word,  or  a  stem  ;  as,  street- 
car, retrograde.  In  some  cases,  the  base  adds  both  a  pre- 
fix and  a  suffix  ;  as,  composition.  Here,  to  the  base  posit 
is  added  the  prefix  com,  and  the  suffix  ion. 

IX.     PARSING 

Parsing.  —  Parsing  consists  in  stating  the  part  of  speech 
to  which  a  word  belongs,  its  properties,  and  its  construction 
in  the  sentence. ^ 

Construction.  —  By  the  construction  of  a  word  is  meant  its 
syntax;  that  is,  its  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 

Order  of  Parsing. — The  following  is  the  order  of  parsing 
of  each  of  the  parts  of  speech. 

I.  The  Noun.  —  State  (1)  its  class,  (2)  its  gender,  number, 
and  person,  (3)  its  case,  and  construction,  giving  the  reason, 
as  follows  : 

If  nominative,  state  of  what  finite  verb  it  is  the  subject  or 
predicate  complement ;  or  tell  if  it  is  nominative  by  address,  or 


^  Neither  the  use  of  diagrams,  except  infrequently  as  an  aid  to  the 

analysis  of  difficult  sentences,  nor  routine  parsing,  is  to  be  recommended. 

—  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


Order  of  Parsing  513 

« 

nominative  absolute,  or  nominative  by  apposition  with  some 
noun.  In  the  latter  case  state  with  what  noun  it  is  in 
apposition. 

If  objective  J  state  of  what  transitive  verb  or  preposition  it  is 
the  object ;  or  of  what  infinitive  it  is  the  subject ;  or  if  it  is  used 
adverbially,  as  a  noun  denoting  time,  distance,  measure,  or  value, 
state  what  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  adverb  it  modifies. 

If  possessive,  state  what  noun  it  modifies. 

II.  TJie  Pronoun.  —  Parse  in  the  same  manner  as  the  noun, 
except  that  its  properties  of  gender,  number,  and  person,  depend 
upon  its  antecedent,  which  should  be  named. 

III.  The  Adjective.  —  State  (1)  its  class,  (2)  degree  of  com- 
parison, and  how  it  is  compared,  (3)  its  construction,  that  is, 
what  it  modifies. 

IV.  The  Verb.  —  State  (1)  whether  regular  or  irregular,  and 
give  its  principal  parts,  (2).  whether  transitive,  intransitive,  or 
copulative,  and  if  transitive,  its  voice,  and  the  reason  therefor, 
(3)  its  mode  and  tense,  and  the  reason  in  each  case,  (4)  its  per- 
son and  number,  and  agreement. 

V.  The  Participle.  —  State  (1)  from  what  verb  derived, 
(2)  tense,  (3)  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  if  transitive,  its  voice 
and  the  reason  for  it,  (4)  its  construction,  or  what  it  modifies. 

VI.  Tlie  Gerund.  —  State  (1)  from  what  verb  derived, 
(2)  tense,  (3)  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  if  transitive,  its 
voice,  and  why,  (4)  if  in  active  voice,  what  object,  if  any,  it 
has,  (5)  case,  and  reason  for  case. 

VII.  The  Adverb.  —  State  (1)  class,  (2)  degree  of  compari- 
son, and  how  compared,  (3)  construction,  that  is,  what  word  it 
modifies. 

VIII.  The  Preposition.  —  State  (1)  what  word  it  governs, 
(2)  what  word  the  preposition  and  its  object  modify,  (3)  what 
kind  of  phrase,  whether  noun  phrase,  adjective  phrase,  or  ad- 
verbial phrase,  the  preposition  and  its  object  form. 

IX.  The  Conjunction.  —  State  (1)  whether  it  is  coordinate  or 
subordinate ;  (2)  its  construction ;  that  is,  what  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses  are  connected  by  it. 


514 


Grammar 


X.    The  Interjection.  —  State  its  class,  that  is,  whether  it  is  a 
real  interjection,  or  some  word  used  as  such. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Blarney    Castle.  —  Not 

far  from  Cork,  Ireland, 
stands  Blarney  Castle, 
visited  annually  by  thou- 
sands of  tourists.  In  the 
north-east  corner  of  the 
tower  there  is  a  stone 
which  is  said  to  possess  a 
wonderful  power.  Any- 
one, so  runs  the  legend, 
may  obtain  the  gift  of  a 
persuasive  tongue  who  will 
climb  up  to  the  stone  and 
kiss  it.  Irish  folk  are  in 
the  habit  of  saying  of  one 
who  can  interest  and 
persuade  others  easily, 
"  Sure,  he  must  have 
kissed  the  blarney  stone." 
And  when  they  think  some  one  is  trying  to  flatter  them,  they 
laugh  and  say,  "  Go  on,  you  can't  work  your  blarney  on  me  ! " 

Describe  a  visit  to  Blarney  Castle.  Or  tell  some  story  of  one  who 
has  the  gift  of  blarneying. 

EXERCISES  FOR  PARSING 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  sentences.  Be  as  brief  as 
possible,  but  aim  to  give  all  the  important  facts  concerning  each  word. 
In  case  of  an  ellipsis,  supply  the  omitted  word  or  words. 

1.  How  very  beautiful  those  gems  are !  they  look  like  frag- 
ments of  heaven.  —  George  Eliot. 

2.  The  future  is  always  a  fairy  land  to  the  young. 

—  G.  A.  Sala. 


Blarney  Castle. 


Analysis  of  Sentences  515 

3.  The  heart  of  a  wise  man  should  resemble  a  mirror,  which 
reflects  every  object  without  being  sullied  by  any.  —  Confucius. 

4.  The  square  described  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled 
triangle  is  equivalent  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  described  on 
the  other  two  sides.  —  Euclid,  4'^th  Proposition,  Book  i. 

5.  The  night  is  far  spent,  the  day  is  at  hand :  let  us  there- 
fore cast  off  the  works  of  darkness,  and  let  us  put  on  the  armor 
of  light.  —  Romans  xiii.  12. 

6.  And  Ahab  said  to  Elijah,  Hast  thou  found  me,  O  mine 
enemy  ?  —  1  Kings  xxi.  20 

7.  When  the  wind  is  in  the  north, 
The  skillful  fisher  goes  not  forth  ; 
When  the  wind  is  in  the  east, 

'T  is  neither  good  for  man  nor  beast ; 

When  the  wind  is  in  the  south. 

It  blows  the  bait  in  the  fishes'  mouth ; 

When  the  wind  is  in  the  west. 

Then  't  is  at  its  very  best.        —  Mother  Goose. 

8.  But  the  young  girl  at  the  garret  window  stood  there 
with  gleaming  eyes,  with  the  rosy  hue  of.  health  on  her  cheeks, 
and  folded  her  thin  hands  over  the  pea  blossom  and  thanked 
heaven  for  it.  —  Hans  Christian  Andersen. 

9.  If  it  be  a  sin  to  covet  honor,  I  am  the  most  offending 
soul  alive.  —  Shakespeare. 

10.  The  truest  wisdom,  in  general,  is  a  resolute  determina- 
tion. —  Napoleon. 

X.    ANALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES 

Analysis. — Analysis'^  in  grammar  is  the  process  of 
separating  a  sentence  into  parts,  according  to  their  use. 

1  To  help  the  pupil  develop  the  "  sentence  sense  "  and  to  grasp  the 
thought  of  difficult  sentences,  much  of  the  time  given  to  the  study  of 
grammar  should  be  spent  in  the  analysis  of  sentences  just  within  the  limit 
of  his  mental  ability,  such  analysis  consisting  of  rapid  drill  in  syntax  of 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses. 

—  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


516  Grammar 

Elements.  —  The  elements  with  which  analysis  deals  are 
words^  phrases,  and  clauses. 

A  word  is  an  element  of  the  Jirst  class.  In  the  sentence, 
Why  are  you  so  late  ?  all  the  elements  are  of  the  first  class, 
being  single  words. 

A  phrase,  consisting  either  (1)  of  a  preposition  and  its  object ; 
or  (2)  of  an  infinitive,  is  an  element  of  the  second  dass.  In  the 
sentence,  /  have  decided  to  remain  until  Saturday,  there  are  two 
phrases,  to  remain,  which  is  an  infinitive  phrase ;  and  until 
Saturday,  a  prepositional  phrase.  Both  are  elements  of  the 
second  class. 

A  clause,  which  is  an  element  containing  a  subject  and  predi- 
cate of  its. own,  is  an  element  of  the  third  class.  In  the  sen- 
tence. 

Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 
This  is  my  own,  my  native  land ! 

the  second  line  is  a  clause,  modifying  ma7i,  and  the  third  line 
is  a  clause,  modifying  the  transitive  verb  hath  said,  as  its 
direct  object.  These  two  clauses,  who  never  to  himself  hath 
said,  and  this  is  my  own,  my  native  land,  are  both  elements  of 
the  third  class. 

Simple,  Complex,  or  Compound  Elements.  —  Elements  of 
all  three  classes  may  be  either  simple,  complex.,  or  compound. 

A  simple  element  of  any  class  is  one  that  is  not  modified  by 
any  other  element.  In  the  sentence,  /  think  I  shall  buy  me  a 
panama  hat,  the  word  panama  is  a  simple  element,  because 
not  modified  by  any  other  word.  But  the  word  ^o^  is  not 
simple,  because  it  is  modified  by  a  and  panama. 

A  complex  element  is  one  which  is  modified  by  some  other 
word,  phrase,  or  clause.  Did  you  notice  that  little  bird,  which 
sings  so  sweetly  ?  Here,  that  little  bird,  which  sings  so  sweetly 
is  a  complex  element,  in  which  the  word  bird  is  modified  by 
three  elements^  that  and  little,  elements  of  the  first  class  j  and 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  517 

which  sings  so  sweetly,  an  element  of  the  third  class.  These 
modifying  elements  make  the  element  complex. 

A  compound  element  consists  of  two  or  more  elements, 
joined  together  by  coordinate  connectives.  Man  and  beast  are 
suffering  for  water.  Here,  man  and  beast  is  a  compound  ele- 
ment, the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Tliis  rem.edy  is  good  for  man 
and  beast.  Here  man  and  beast  is  a  compound  element  of  the 
first  class,  the  object  of  the  preposition  for.  The  expression 
for  man  and  beast  forms  a  compound  adverbial  element  of  the 
second  class,  modifying  good,  an  adjective. 

In  the  sentence,  /  do  not  care  what  he  offered  me,  or  lohy  he 
offered  it,  the  expression  what  he  offered  me  or  why  he  offered  it, 
is  a  compound  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  being  two 
clauses  joined  by  the  coordinate  conjunction  or. 

Principal  and  Subordinate  Elements.  —  Elements  are 
either  principal  or  subordinate. 

Principal  Elements.  —  Principal  elements  are  elements 
used  as  the  subject,  predicate,  or  subjective  complement  of  a 
sentence. 

Subordinate  Elements.  —  Elements  which  are  used  to 
limit  or  modify  either  principal  or  subordinate  elements 
are  called  subordinate  elements.  Subordinate  elements 
may  be  adjective,  objective,  and  adverbial.  These  terms 
have  already  been  defined. 

Kinds  of  Sentences. — So  far  as  use  is  concerned,  sen- 
tences may  be  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and 
exclamatory. 

Declarative  Sentences  are  used  to  make  a  statement ;  as, 
Catiline  fied  from  Rome. 

Interrogative  sentences  ask  a  question  ;  as,  Where  did  you 
go  last  night? 

Imperative  sentences  contain  a  command,  an  exliortation, 
entreaty,  or  give  permission  ;  as,  ^o,  where  glory  waits  thee. 
Let  us  go  home  soon'.     Do  not  kill  that  bird- '    You  may  go  now* 


518 


Grammar 


Exclamatory  sentences  are   used  to  express  sudden  or 
strong  emotion  ;  as,  Alas^  that  I  should  see  this  day  ! 


^1-/^1-^--'- '>:^^^| 


Wreck  of  a  United  States  Warship. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 
Wreck  of  a  United  States  Warship  at  Samoa.  —  In  the  famous 
tidal  wave  at  Samoa,  one   of  our  ships   was   caught  by  the 
tornado  and  hurled  to  destruction.     What  was  left  of  it  is 
shown  in  the  picture. 

1.  Describe  the  wreck,  as  if  you  had  just  visited  it. 

2.  Refer  to  Robinson  Crusoe,  and  give  an  account  of  his  visit  to  the 
wreck  of  his  ship,  after  he  was  cast  upon  a  desert  island. 

3.  Imagine  yourself  one  of  the  crew,  or  one  of  the  passengers  on 
board  a  ship  torpedoed  by  the  enemy.     Tell  how  you  got  to  land. 

Structure  of  Sentences. — With  reference  to  their  structure, 
sentences  are  divided  into  simple,  complex,  and  compound. 

Simple  Sentences.  —  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one 
clause.  Its  subject,  predicate,  and  modifiers  may  be 
words  or  phrases ;  and  they  may  be  simple,  complex,  or 
compound.  But  as  long  as  none  of  these  elements  is  an 
additional  clause,  the  sentence  remains  simple. 


Complex  Sentences  519 

Children  play. 

Little  children  play  on  the  sands. 

The  happy  little  children  of  the  sailor  folk  play  here  and 
there  in  great  numbers  all  over  the  beautiful  sands  of  the 
seaside.  1 

Complex  Sentences.  —  Complex  sentences  are  sentences, 
some  part  of  which,  either  principal  or  subordinate  element, 
is  modified  by  one  or  more  additional  clauses.  I  do  not 
know  when  I  have  enjoyed  an  evening  more  than  this.  The 
principal  clause  is  I  do  not  know.  The  subordinate  or 
modifying  clause  is  when  I  have  enjoyed  an  evening  more 
than  this.  The  subordinate  connective  when.^  a  conjunc- 
tive adverb,  joins  on  the  modifying  clause  to  the  verb  know, 

A  complex  sentence  contains  one  principal  clause,  and 
one  or  more  subordinate  clauses. 

Uses  of  the  Subordinate  Clause.  —  The  subordinate  clause 
may  be  any  of  the  following. 

1.  A  subordinate  clause  may,  as  an  adjective,  modify  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  ;  as,  This  is  the  house  that  Jack 
built.  Here,  the  clause,  that  Jack  hidlty  modifies  houscj  as  an 
adjective. 

2.  A  subordinate  clause  may,  as  an  adverb,  modify  a  verb ; 
as,  Tlie  robins  returned  when  spring  came.  Here,  the  clause, 
when  spring  came,  modifies  the  verb  returned. 

3.  A  subordinate  clause  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb ;  as.  Can  you  tell  where  you  put  that  knife  ?  Please 
explain  what  you  mean.  Here,  the  clause,  where  you  put  that 
knife,  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  can  tell.  And  the 
clause,  what  you  mean,  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
explain. 

4.  A  subordinate  clause  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a 
preposition  ;  as,  I  shall  be  governed  in  my  course  by  what  1 
discover.  Here,  the  clause,  what  I  discover,  is  the  object  of  the 
preposition  by. 


520 


Grammar 


6.  A  subordinate  clause  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
sentence ;  as,  That  you  have  wronged  me,  doth  appear  in  this. 

Compound  Sentences.  — Compound  sentences  contain  two 
or  more  principal  or  independent  clauses.  7^e  rains  de- 
hcended^  the  floods  came^  and  the  winds  blew.  Here,  three 
principal  clauses,  The  rains  descended^  (and)  the  floods 
came^  and  the  winds  blew,  are  connected  by  the  word  and. 

A  tart  temper  never  mellows  with  age ;  and  a  sharp  tongue  is 
the  only  edged  tool  that  grows  keener  with  constant  use. 

—  Irving. 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  made  up  of  a  simple  sentence 
A  tart  temper  never  mellows  with  age  ;  to  which  is  joined  by 
the  word  and  a  complex  sentence.  And  a  sharp  tongue  is  the 
only  edged  tool  that  grows  keener  with  constant  use.  This  is 
complex  because  it  contains  one  principal  clause,  Aiid  a  sharp 
tongue  is  the  only  edged  tool,  to  which  is  joined  a  limiting  or 
modifying  clause,  that  grows  keener  with  constant  use. 


fei* 

'^  /lit ??'*•.■-■■; #1^ 

4  W^^mi- 

■i'-i    it'i^i- 

WB 

- 

am  -1  ?wp 

Going  A-Gypsying. 


Diagraming  Sentences  521 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Going  a-Gypsying.  —  Such  a  jaunt  as  this  is  within  almost 
anybody's  reach.  It  may  be  on  the  outer  edge  of  your  city 
park ;  or  near  some  good  fishing  stream,  a  few  miles  out  from 
town ;  or  on  the  mountain-side  near  you ;  or  on  the  lakeside, 
or  at  the  sea-shore. 

Put  it  where  you  please,  and  tell  about  it.  Your  mother  is  a  famous 
cook,  and  she  is  making  pies.  Make  your  classmates'  mouths  water, 
by  telling  about  the  pies.  And  after  telling  about  this  scene,  get  your 
folks  to  go  a-gypsying  again  some  day  soon. 

Diagraming  Sentences.  —  Diagraming  sentences  is  arrang- 
ing them  to  show  to  the  eye  the  different  parts  in  such  a 
way  as  to  render  the  analysis  clear.  For  instance,  take 
this  sentence  from  Shakespeare  : 

Imperious  Caesar,  dead  and  turned  to  clay, 
Might  stop  a  hole,  to  keep  the  wind  away. 

—  Hamlet. 

Ccesar  is  the  subject,  and  might  stop  is  the  predicate.  And  it 
so  happens  that  the  first  line  belongs  entirely  to  the  subject 
Ccesar,  while  the  second  line  belongs  entirely  to  the  predicate 
might  stop.     The  sentence  may  thus  be  arranged : 


imperious 

Caesar 

dead 

and 

turned         to  clay 

hole              a 

might  stop 

wind 

to  keep 

the 


away 


This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  Ccesar  is  the  simple, 
subject,  and  might  stop  is  the  simple  predicate.  The  complex 
or  logical  subject  is  the  Jlrst  line  ;  and  the  complex  or  logical 
predicate  is  the  second  line. 


522  Grammar 

The  simple  subject  Ccesar  is  modified  by  imperious,  a  simple 
adjective  element  of  the  first  class.  It  is  also  modified  by 
dead  and  turned  to  day,  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the 
first  class,  of  which  dead  and  turned  is  the  basis.  Dead  and 
turned  is  a  compound  adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  made 
up  of  two  simple  elements  of  the  first  class,  joined  by  and,  a 
coordinate  conjunction.  Turned  is  modified  by  to  clay,  simple, 
adverbial,  second  class. 

The  simple  predicate  might  stop  is  modified  by  a  hole,  a  com- 
plex objective  element  of  the  first  class,  of  which  hole  is  the 
basis.  It  is  also  modified  by  to  keep  the  wind  away,  a  complex 
adverbial  element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  to  keep  is  the 
basis.  To  keep  is  modified  by  the  wind,  a  complex  objective 
element  of  the  first  class,  of  which  wind  is  the  basis.  To  keep 
is  also  modified  by  away,  a  simple  adverbial  element  of  the 
first  class. 

Again,  take  this  sentence  from  Tennyson: 

Here  on  this  beach  a  hundred  years  ago, 
Three  children  of  three  houses,  Annie  Lee, 
The  prettiest  little  damsel  of  the  port. 
And  Philip  Eay,  the  miller's  only  son. 
And  Enoch  Arden,  a  rough  sailor's  lad, 
Made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  played 
Among  the  waste  and  lumber  of  the  shore. 

—  Enoch  Arden,  Tennyson. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence,  with  children  as  the 
simple  subject,  and  played  as  the  simple  predicate;  and  three 
children  .  .  .  shipwreck,  as  the  complex  or  logical  subject ;  and 
Here  on  this  beach  a  hundred  years  ago,  played  among  the  waste 
and  lumber  of  the  shore,  as  the  complex  or  logical  predicate. 

Children,  the  subject,  is  modified  by  three,  a  simple  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class  ;  by  of  three  houses,  a  complex  adjec- 
tive element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  of  houses  is  the 
basis.  Houses  is  modified  by  three ,  a  simple  adjective  element 
of  the  first  class.     Children  is  also  modified  by  Annie  LeCy  the 


Diagraming  Sentences  523 

prettiest  little  damsel  .  .  .  shipwreck,  a  complex  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  of  which  Annie  Lee  and  Philip  Bay  and 
Enoch  Arden  is  the  basis,  this  element  being  a  compound 
adjective  element,  its  three  proper  names  being  joined  together 
by  the  coordinate  connective  and. 

Annie  Lee  is  modified  by  the  prettiest  little  damsel  of  the  port, 
a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  its  basis  being 
damsel.  Damsel  is  modified  by  the,  jyrettiest,  and  little,  simple 
adjective  elements  of  the  first  class  ;  and  by  of  the  port,  a  complex 
adjective  element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  of  port  is  the  basis. 

Philip  Bay  is  modified  by  the  miller's  only  son,  a  complex 
adjective  element  of  the  first  class,  of  which  son  is  the  basis. 
Son  is  modified  by  the,  miller's,  and  07ily,  all  simple  adjective 
elements  of  the  first  class. 

Enoch  Arden  is  modified  by  a  rough  sailor's  lad,  made  orphan 
by  a  winter  shipwreck,  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first 
class,  of  which  lad  is  the  basis.  Lad  is  modified  by  a,  rough, 
and  sailoi^s,  all  simple  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class,  and 
made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  which  is  a  complex  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class,  of  which  made  orphan  is  the  basis. 
Made  orphan  is  modified  by  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  a  complex 
adverbial  element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  by  shipwreck  is 
the  basis. 

Played,  the  predicate,  is  modified  by  here,  a  simple  adverbial 
element  of  the  first  class,  by  on  this  beach,  a  complex  adverbial 
element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  on  beach  is  the  basis. 
Beach  is  modified  by  this,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the 
first  class.  Played  is  also  modified  by  a  hundred  years  ago,  a 
complex  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class,  of  which  years  is 
the  basis.  Years  is  modified  by  a  hundred,  a  simple  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class  ;  and  ago  (equivalent  to  past),  a  simple 
adjective  element  of  the  first  class.  Played  is  also  modified  by 
among  the  waste  and  lumber  of  the  shore,  a  complex  adverbial 
element  of  the  second  class,  of  which  the  basis  is  among  waste 
and  among  lumber,  a  compound  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
class.      Waste  is  modified  by  the,  a  simple  adjective  element  of 


524  Grammar 

the  first  class ;  and  by  of  the  shore ^  a  complex  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  second  class,  of  which  of  shore  is  the  basis,  and 
which  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class.  Lumber  is 
modified  by  the,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  first  class. 

You  will  notice  that  in  an  element  like  among  the  waste  and 
lumber  of  the  shore,  which  is  both  complex  and  compound,  the 
model  analysis  speaks  of  its  being  complex,  rather  than  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  compoimd.  The  fact  that  among  waste  and  among 
lumber  is  a  compound  element  of  the  second  class  comes  out 
when  it  is  mentioned  as  the  basis.  Always  try  to  avoid  undue 
complexity  in  the  analysis.^ 

three 

of  houses  three 

the 

prettiest 
Annie  Lee  damsel  little 


and 

of  port    the 
the 

children  Philip  Eay 

son 

miller's 

and 

only 

a 

rough 

Enoch  Arden 

lad 

sailor's                               a 
made  orphan  by  shipwreck 

winter 

here 

on  beach 

this 

a-hundred 

years 

played 

ago 

among  waste 

of  shore       the 

and 

(among)  lumber 

the 

1  The  problem  in  the  study  of  grammar  in  the  high  school  is  not  to  im- 
part knowledge  of  forms,  of  definitions,  and  of  classifications.  It  is  rather 
to  aeoure  drill  in  those  phases  of  grammatical  study  that  actually  affect 


Exercises  in  Analysis  5'25 

EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS   AND  PARSING 

Analyze  as  briefly  as  possible,  the  following  sentences.  Give  the 
essential  facts  in  parsing  concerning  any  words  in  italics.  That  is, 
give  the  case,  and  reason  for  case,  of  the  nouns,  and  the  mode  and  tense, 
and  reason  for  mode  and  tense,  of  the  verbs.  Be  prepared  to  name 
the  part  of  speech  of  each  word  in  the  entire  exercise. 

1.  Let  no  one  till  his  death  be  called  unhappy. 

—  Mrs.  E.  B.  Browning. 

2.  Some  must  follow,  and  some  command,  though  all  he 
made  of  clay.  —  Longfellow. 

3.  Be  not  merely  good;  be  good  for  something.  —  Thoreau. 

4.  A  man  must  govern  himself  ere  he  is  lit  to  govern  his 
family.  —  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

5.  There  is  no  such  way  to  attain  to  greater  measure  of 
grace  as /or  a  man  to  live  up  to  the  little  grace  he  has.  —  Phillips 
Brooks. 

6.  And  the  Lord  turned  the  captivity  of  Job,  when  he 
prayed  for  his  friends  :  and  the  Lord  gave  Job  twice  as  much 
as  he  had  before.  —  Job. 

7.  I  pity  the  man  who  can  travel  from  Dan  to  Beersheba, 
and  cry  it  is  all  barren.  —  Sterne. 

8.  The  way  to  the  heart  is  through  the  sense ;  please  the 
eyes  and  the  ears,  and  the  work  is  half  done.  —  Chesterfield. 

9.  There  are  glances  that  stab,  and  raise  no  cry  of  murder. 
—  George  Eliot. 

10.  Refuse  to  be  ill ;  never  tell  people  you  are  ill ;  never 
own  it  to  yourself.  —  Bulwer. 

11.  Do  all  the  good  you  can,  in  all  the  ways  you  can,  to  all 
the  souls  you  can,  in  every  place  you  can,  at  all  the  times  you 


the  ordinary  speech  and  writing  of  the  pupil  and,  in  a  lesser  degree,  to 
develop  the  power  of  thought.  It  is  subordinate  to  the  study  of  literature 
and  of  composition.  The  application  of  analysis  and  syntax  to  the  study 
of  literature  should  be  employed  only  for  the  purpose  of  elucidating  diflB- 
cult  constructions  or  involved  sentences.  It  is  not  expected  that  any  school 
will  deal  with  unusual  idioms  or  grammatical  puzzles. 

—  From  the  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 


526 


Grammar 


can,  with  all  the  zeal  you  can,  as  long  as  ever  you  can.  —  John 
Wesley. 

12.  A  peasant  and  a  philosopher  may  be  equally  satisfied, 
but  not  equally  happy.  A  small  drinking-glass  and  a  large 
one  may  be  equally  fullf  but  a  large  one  holds  more  than  the 
smaM.  —  Dr.  Johnson. 

13.  Bad  habits  are  as  infectious  by  example  as  the  plague 
is  by  contact.  —  Fielding. 

14.  Take  several  brief  ivhole  compositions,  as  Aboti  ben 
Adheniy  for  analysis  and  parsing. 


East  Fork,  Little  Miami. 


EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

Inviting.  —  See  that  canoe  hauled  up  on  the  shore,  on  the  East 
Fork  of  the  Little  Miami  River?  It  is  waiting  for  you  to 
enter  in  imagination,  and  paddle  away.  There  is  no  one  to 
say  you  nay;  you  may  paddle  anywhere  you  please.  Turn 
back  the  hands  of  the  clock  of  Time  but  just  a  little,  and 
fancy  it  an  Indian  canoe. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  527 

1.  If  a  girl,  imagine  yourself  an  Indian  maiden,  Pocahontas-like, 
and  tiptoe  down  from  the  Miami  village  and  get  into  the  canoe.  You 
will  know  how  to  manage  it. 

2.  If  a  boy,  count  yourself  a  young  pioneer  Kentuckian,  watching 
for  the  return  of  the  owner  of  the  canoe,  a  young  Miami  warrior. 
Tell  the  rest  of  the  story  as  you  please. 


APPENDIX  A 
PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

Punctuation  Defined.  —  Punctuation  is  the  pointing  off 
or  separation  of  one  part  of  a  piece  of  writing  from 
another,  by  means  of  what  are  called  punctuation  marks. 
Punctuation  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the 
meaning  clear  and  unmistakable. 

The  chief  punctuation  marks  are  the  period  and  the 
comma.  The  colon  and  semicolon  are  next  in  impor- 
tance. In  case  of  direct  questions,  the  interrogation 
mark  is  used. 

Our  punctuation  marks  came  into  use  gradually  after 
the  invention  of  printing.  The  early  printers  used  a 
perpendicular  line  for  comma,  colon,  and  period.  In  the 
Boke  of  Magna  Carta^  printed  in  1534,  this  perpendicular 
line  does  service  for  every  point  except  the  period,  which 
is  diamond-shaped.  In  Tyndale's  Testamente^  printed  in 
1526,  a  slanted  line  does  service  for  the  comma.  The 
forms  now  in  use  owe  their  origin  to  the  founders  of  the 
Aldine  Press  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  semicolon 
was  not  a  recognized  stop  in  England  until  1643,  hence 
we  may  conclude  that  Shakespeare  must  have  written 
his  plays  without  its  aid. 

The  period  marks  a  full  thought.  The  colon  marks 
a  division  of  a  thought.  The  comma  marks  any  part 
which  has  been  struck  off  from  the  main  body  of  thought. 

Simplicity  in  Punctuation.  —  It  is  worth  noting  that  the 
tendency  to-day   in   punctuation   is   towards  simplicity. 

529 


530  Appendix 

Books  on  rhetoric  dominated  the  old  style  of  punctuation, 
while  the  magazines  and  especially  the  newspapers  are 
responsible  in  large  measure  for  the  simpler  punctuation 
that  now  prevails.  The  readers  of  newspapers  have 
neither  time  nor  inclination  to  study  into  hidden  mean- 
ings. Everything  must  be  clear.  The  articles  are  written 
as  they  are  read,  on  the  run. 

Anything  not  easily  intelligible  is  passed  over  by  the 
general  reader,  and  what  there  is  no  demand  for  soon 
drops  out  of  place  in  the  columns  of  a  newspaper.  The 
news  writer  who  cannot  say  what  he  means  so  that  his 
readers  can  understand  him,  soon  finds  himself  out  of  em- 
ployment. The  rule  is,  write  clearly  or  quit.  Thus 
newspaper  men  have  come  to  have  a  style  of  their  own, 
and  if  they  have  lost  at  other  points,  they  have  gained  in 
clearness,  and  the  reading  public  shares  in  this  gain. 

The  old  compositors  and  proof  readers  prided  themselves 
upon  what  was  termed  close  punctuation^  but  now  almost 
all  progressive  newspapers  employ  some  kind  of  type- 
setting machine,  and  as  it  requires  a  longer  reach  of  the 
operator's  arm,  with  a  consequent  loss  of  time,  to  strike 
the  unusual  punctuation  marks  in  newspaper  composition, 
editorial  writers  and  proof  readers  have  learned  to  bow  to 
the  inevitable  and  simplify  their  punctuation. 

Business  Punctuation.  —  Another  factor  in  molding  the 
style  of  to-day  is  that  business  correspondence  insists  on 
simplicity.  Letters  should  be  written  so  as  to  be  read  at 
a  glance.  In  business  letters  of  all  kinds,  straightfor- 
wardness in  both  writing  and  punctuation  is  all-important. 
Clearness  and  brevity  are  requisites. 

The  rule  in  business  letters  is,  (1)  to  write  the  para- 
graph so  clearly  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  mean  anything 
else  than  what  you  intend  it  to  mean,  and  (2)  to  punc- 
tuate it  so  as  to  bring  out  that  meaning,  if  possible,  still 


Rules  of  Punctuation  531 

more  clearly.  Not  a  word,  and  not  a  punctuation  mark 
more  than  absolutely  necessary,  is  to  be  used. 

Besides,  business  correspondence  is  now  written  on  the 
typewriter.  From  the  fact  that  the  use  of  punctuation 
marks  on  the  typewriter  tends  to  cut  into  the  paper  and 
to  disfigure  the  letter,  experienced  operators  in  large 
business  houses  discourage  the  use  of  all  punctuation 
marks  that  can  be  omitted. 

Rules  of  Punctuation.  —  A  practical  rule  for  punctua- 
tion may  be  thus  stated  :  write  so  as  to  express  exactly  what 
you  mean^  and  punctuate  so  as  to  bring  out  this  .  meaning-, 
avoiding  the  use  of  unnecessary  punctuation  marks.  The 
use  of  quotation  marks  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
hyphens,  except  at  the  end  of  a  line,  are  fast  disappearing. 

Semicolon.  —  There  is  a  marked  disposition  to  do  away 
with  the  semicolon  where  it  can  be  done  with  safety.  Of 
course,  there  are  times  when  this  point  is  indispensable, 
but  its  use  should  be  limited  to  cases  where  no  other  mark 
will  do.  It  usually  separates  two  or  more  equally  im- 
portant divisions  of  a  sentence. 

Period.  —  If  there  were  but  two  marks  used,  and  only 
two,  they  would  be  the  period  and  the  comma^  the  latter 
indicating  a  partial  pause  in  the  thought  and  the  former 
the  completion  of  a  sentence.  In  case  of  a  direct  question, 
the  interrogation  point  is  to  be  used  instead  of  a  period. 

Colon.  —  The  comma  may  almost  always  take  the  place 
of  the  colon.  Probably  the  only  instance  where  the  colon 
is  actually  necessary  is  where  the  complimentary  address 
of  a  letter  requires  it,  or  after  an  expression  like  as  follows. 
Of  course  this  remark  applies  to  recent  writings.  The 
old  punctuation  is  an  essential  part  of  the  older  literature. 

Comma,  —  Do  not  use  the  comma  except  where  it  is 
needed  to  make  your  meaning  clear.  Aim  to  write  so 
that  you  must   be  understood,  and   punctuate  so  as  to 


532  Appendix 

render  your  meaning  clearer.     Never  use  an  unnecessary 
point,  but  never  avoid  the  use  of  a  necessary  point. 

It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  rhetorical  pauses  and  em- 
phatic pjirases  are  to  control  punctuation.  These  belong 
rather  to  the  reader's  art  than  to  that  of  the  writer.  The 
King  James  version  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  ordinarily 
punctuated  is  an  admirable  example  of  judicious  punctua- 
tion of  the  older  type.  In  simplicity  and  in  the  avoid- 
ance of  unnecessary  punctuation  marks  it  approaches  the 
modern  style. 

"Open  punctuation,  characterized  by  the  avoidance  of  all 
pointing  not  clearly  required  by  the  construction,  now  prevails 
in  the  best  English  usage."  —  The  Century  Dictionary. 

Capitals  and  Abbreviations.  —  (1)  The  first  word  of  a 
sentence,  or  of  a  line  of  poetry,  and  the  first  word  of 
a  direct  quotation  making  complete  sense,  begin  with 
a  capital.  (2)  The  pronoun  J  and  the  interjection  0  are 
capitalized.  (3)  All  proper  nouns,  including  the  names 
and  titles  of  God,  with  adjectives  derived  from  proper 
names,  are  written  with  a  capital. 

Pronouns  relating  to  Deity  are  not  usually  capitalized. 
When  an  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  noun  is  in 
constant  use,  it  comes  to  be  regarded  as  common  and  no 
longer  takes  a  capital.  The  word  voltaic  is  an  instance  of 
this.  A  capital  may  begin  phrases  and  clauses  used  as 
separate  headings,  although  this  is  not  imperative. 

The  following  may  be  noted :  New  York  City  or  New 
York  city,  Kansas  City,  Atlantic  ocean.  Fifth  Avenue,  Adiron- 
dack Mountains,  High  Street,  Mississippi  Kiver,  Jefferson 
County,  Woodrow  Wilson,  President  of  the  United  States, 
President  Taft,  the  state  of  Ohio,  our  nation,  the  Government, 
My  dear  sir.  To  whom  this  may  come,  Yours  very  respectfully, 
The  Winning  of  the  West. 


Capitals  and  Abbreviations  533 

Do  not  abbreviate,  if  you  can  avoid  it.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  abbreviate,  and  the 
following  directions  may  be  noted.  Most  abbreviations 
begin  with  a  capital  and  require  a  period  at  the  end. 

For  example,  A.  B.,  bachelor  of  arts ;  B.  C,  before  Christ ; 
A.  p.,  anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  ;  A.  M.,  master  of 
arts  ;  P.  M:,  postmaster ;  D.D.,  doctor  of  divinity ;  Ph.  D., 
doctor  of  philosophy ;  M.  D.,  doctor  of  medicine ;  D.  D.  S., 
doctor  of  dental  surgery ;  N.  B.,  nota  bene,  take  notice ;  MS., 
manuscript,  MSS.,  manuscripts,  also  Ms.  and  Mss. ;  Co.,  com- 
pany ;  R.  E.  D.,  rural  free  delivery. 

Where  many  envelopes  are  to  be  addressed  upon  the 
typewriter  there  is  a  disposition,  in  large  business  houses, 
to  write  the  following  with  a  capital,  but  without  the 
final  period  :  St,  saint  ;  Mt,  mount  or  mountain  ;  Dr, 
doctor ;  Mr,  mister  ;  Mrs,  mistress  ;  or  as  ordinarily  pro- 
nounced missis.  In  ordinary  use,  however,  they  follow 
the  general  rule. 

Dr.  Charles  Taylor,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Browning, 

Mt.  St.  Marys,  Ohio.  Mt.  Clemens,  Michigan. 

The  following  are  written  without  the  capital,  but  with  the 
final  period :  a.m.,  ante  meridiem^  before  noon ;  p.m.,  post 
meridiem,  afternoon;  etc.,  et  cetera,  and  others,  and  so  forth; 
i.e.,  id  est,  that  is ;  p.,  page ;  pp.,  pages ;  st.,  street ;  ave., 
avenue  ;  co.,  county  ;  pro  tern.,  pro  tempore,  for  the  time  being ; 
ult.,  of  the  last  month ;  inst.,  of  the  present  month  ;  .prox.,  of 
the  next  or  coming  month. 

The  names  of  the  months  may  be  abbreviated  uniformly 
by  using  the  first  letters  of  each  month,  with  the  period, 
as  Jan.,  Feb.,  Mar.,  Apr.,  Aug.,  Sept.,  Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec. 
This  applies  especially  where  the  letters  are  written  upon 
the  typewriter.  Little  is  saved  by  trying  to  abbreviate 
May,  June,  and  July. 


584 


Appendix 


Do  not  multiply  the  use  of  the  quotation  mark.  In 
closing  a  quotation  with  a  comma,  question  mark,  or 
period,  if  quotation  marks  are  used,  the  latter  follow  and 
include  the  punctuation  mark. 

Summary.  —  Use  few  exclamation  marks.  Avoid  the 
use  of  the  colon  and  semicolon.  Eliminate  the  hyphen, 
except  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Use  the  dash  sparingly.  In 
short  sentences  it  is  almost  a  safe  rule  to  eliminate  every 
punctuation  mark  except  the  mark  at  the  end.  A  capital 
does  not  follow  an  interrogation  mark  unless  the  latter 
has  the  full  force  of  a  period.  When  in  doubt  do  not 
use  either  capital  or  punctuation  mark.  Underline  only 
very  important  words. 

The  foregoing  is  the  statement  of  the  general  rule. 
Of  course  there  are  exceptions,  as  for  instance  in  under- 
lining emphatic  words.  The  student  may  decide  to  use 
italics,  but  it  is  regarded  as  a  confession  of  weakness. 


Castello  Orsini. 


Exercises  Based  on  Pictures  535 

EXERCISES  BASED  ON  PICTURES 

A  Frowning  Castle.  —  This  castle  is  referred  to  in  Marion 
Crawford's  novel,  Saracinesca.  Turret-crowned,  it  seems  to 
cry  Halt !  to  whatever  enemy  may  approach. 

1.  Study  it.  Enter  it,  in  imagination,  and  tell  what  you  find 
within. 

2.  Think  out  a  little  story  of  adventure,  using  the  Castle  of  the 
Orsini  family  as  the  place.     You  may  make  it  modern  or  medieval. 

3.  Doubting  Castle.  —  Refer  to  Pilgrim's  Progress,  by  John  Bunyan, 
and  tell  the  story  of  the  capture  of  Christian  and  Faithful  by  Giant 
Despair,  and  their  imprisonment  in,  and  escape  from.  Doubting  Castle. 
It  may  well  have  looked  like  the  Castello  Orsini. 

KuLEs  FOR  Government  Printing 

Punctuation.  —  Where  the  teacher  prefers  rules 
definitely  stated,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  following 
which  are  a  little  closer  than  the  foregoing  suggestions, 
but  which  are  nevertheless  in  the  open  style  of  punctua- 
tion. They  are  taken  from  the  Style  Book  issued  by  the 
Government   Printing   Office,    Washington,   DcC. 

Commas  and  Semicolons.  —  When  a  sentence  is  divided 
into  two  clauses  the  second  of  which  requires  a  comma,  a 
semicolon  should  be  used  after  the  first  clause,  as  the 
following  :  "  The  gentleman  will  probably  be  here  to- 
day ;  but  if  he  should  not  be,  you  will  excuse  him.'* 

When  a  sentence  is  divided  and  ths  second  clause  is 
complete,  with  subject  and  predicate,  use  a  comma,  although 
connected  by  a  conjunction  (or  disjunctive,  "or,"  "but," 
etc).,  as  in  the  following  :  "  He  listened  to  the  statement, 
and  he  then  agreed  to  the  proposition. "  Otherwise  omit 
comma,  as  "  He  listened  to  the  statement  and  agreed,"  etc. 

In  sentences  divided  by  commas,  use  commas  before 
conjunctions ;  if  divided  by  semicolons,  use  semicolons 
before  conjunctions. 

Commas  before  and  after  phrases  separating  conjunc- 


536  Appendix 

tions  from  verbs  should  usually  be  omitted.  "  He  listened 
to  the  statement  and,  without  further  consideration, 
agreed  to  the  proposition,"  should  be  punctuated  as  fol- 
lows :  "  He  listened  to  the  statement  and  without  further 
consideration  agreed  to  the  proposition." 

Since  last  month  there  has  been  a  continuance  each  week. 

To  stop,  the  brakes  were  applied  to  the  front  wheels. 

To  release  the  brakes,  the  attendant  was  summoned. 

After  all,  what  need  we  care  for  such  failures  ? 

Answer  this  question:  How  can  the  work  be  accom- 
plished ? 

Have  you  any  interest  in  this  case  ?     If  so,  what  ? 

Have  you  any  interest  in  this  case ;  and  if  so,  what  ? 

How  can  you  explain  this  ?  —  "  Fee  paid,  $5." 

In  indexes,  etc.,  observe  this  form:  Brown,  A.  H.,  jr.; 
Brown,  A.  H.  &  Sons. 

John  Smith,  of  New  York  ;  President  Hadley,  of  Yale 
University  ;  Carroll  of  Carrollton  ;  Henry  of  Navarre 
(no  comma  in  cases  where  the  place  named  has  become 
closely  identified  with  the  person). 

Respectfully  yours. 

Yours,  respectfully. 

In  latitude  40°  19'  12''  N.,  longitude  31°  08'  14"  W. 

If  nothing  more  can  be  done,  why  continue  the  hearing  ? 

In  order  to  accomplish  the  work,  lose  no  time  now. 

Since  the  work  was  accomplished  without  delay,  there 
is  no  cause  for  quibbling. 

Quotation  Marks.  —  Quote  anything  preceded  by  the 
terms  "  entitled,"  "  the  word,"  "  termed,"  and  "  marked," 
but  do  not  quote  after  the  terms  "known  as"  and  "so- 
called  "  unless  the  words  following  are  misnomers  or  slang 
expressions. 

Exclamation  and  interrogation  points,  colons,  and  semi- 
colons should  be  placed  inside  the  quotation  marks  when 


Exclamation  Point  537 

part  of  the  quotation ;  otherwise  outside.  For  example  : 
He  asked,  "Who  are  they?"  Did  you  go  on  the 
«  Pennsy  "  ? 


Looking  across  Crater  Lake. 


EXERCISES   BASED  ON  PICTURES 


Looking  across  Crater  Lake.  —  Tell  the  story  of  this  picture. 
Is  the  athletic  looking  young  fellow  a  sportsman,  a  soldier,  or  a  civil 
engineer  ?  By  his  dress,  he  might  be  any  one  of  the  three.  For  whom 
is  he  watching,  or  for  what  ?  A  grizzly  bear  which  has  come  down 
to  the  water's  edge  to  drink  ?  a  canoe-load  of  his  friends  or  com- 
panions who  are  a  little  late  ?  Or  is  he  watching  the  movements  of  an 
enemy?  The  story  is  as  you  make  it.  Tell  it  as  you  please.  The 
picture  shows  a  spot  of  wild  and  romantic  beauty.  Include  a 
description  of  it  in  what  you  tell  about  the  picture. 

Exclamation  Point.  —  In  direct  address  to  a  person  or 
personified  object  use  "  O  "  (without  exclamation  point). 


538  Appendix 

Use  "  Oh "  in  exclamations  where  no  direct  appeal  ot 
address  is  made.  Examples  :  "  O  my  friend,  let  us'  con- 
sider this  item."  "Oh,  but  the  gentleman  is  wrong." 
When  strong  feeling  is  expressed,  use  exclamation  point, 
which  is  generally  carried  to  the  end  of  the  expression,  as 
"  O  Lord,  save  thy  people  I " 

When  a  city  or  town  and  state  are  used  adjectively, 
put  the  state  in  parenthesis,  as  Baltimore  (Md.)  Sun, 
Boston  (Mass.)  City  Council,  etc. 

Capitalization.  —  Capitalize  proper  names,  or  words  used 
as  such,  singular  or  plural ;  also  when  used  as  adjectives, 
unless  the  adjective  form  is  a  different  word,  derived  from 
a  common  noun  in  specific  cases  ;  for  example,  President 
(presidential),  Senate  (senatorial),  Congress  (congres- 
sional), Province  (provincial).  Exceptions  :  Democratic, 
Territorial,  as  relating  to  the  Democratic  Party  or  a 
Territory  of  the  United  States. 

Capitalize  street,  avenue,  road,  lane,  etc.,  singular  or 
plural,  when  with  the  name. 

Lower  case  (that  is,  do  not  capitalize)  the  following 
words  of  common  usage  which  were  originally  proper 
names,  but  whose  significance  as  such  has  become  ob- 
scured, or  when  used  before  nouns  in  common  use  to 
specify  merchandise : 

china  ware,  manila  rope, 

gothic  (type),  merino  sheep, 

harveyized  steel,  morocco  (leather), 

India  ink,  roman  (type), 

india  rubber,  russia  (leather), 

macadamized  road,  wedgewood  ware. 

Government.  —  Capitalize  when  referring  to  the  United 
States  Government  or  to  foreign  Governments.  Lower 
case  in  the  abstract  sense,  as  this  Government  is  a  govern- 


Capitalization  539 

ment,  the  reins  of  government,  the  seat  of  government, 
etc. ;  referring  to  a  State  of  the  United  States,  the  State 
government. 

President.  —  Capitalize  ;  also  any  synonymous  title  re- 
ferring to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  as  Chief 
Magistrate,  Commander-in-Chief,  Executive,  His  Ex- 
cellency, etc.     Lower  case  presidential. 

State,  —  Capitalize  the  same  as  government.  Capitalize 
State's  attorney.  State's  evidence,  but  lower  case  such  ex- 
pressions as  affairs  of  state,  secretary  of  state  of  Indiana ; 
also  the  words  "  statehood,"  "  statehouse."  Lower  case 
sections  of  States,  as  east  Illinois,  western  Kansas,  east 
Tennessee,  etc. 


APPENDIX  B 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE   TEACHER  OF  ENGLISH  i 

Encouraging  Pupils.  —  More  than  anything  else,  it  is 
important  that  the  pupil  write  something  every  day. 
Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  unremitting  practice. 
Many  a  pupil  of  more  than  ordinary  ability  as  a  writer, 
but  with  that  ability  undemonstrated,  hesitates  to  make 
the  effort  to  write.  He  distrusts  his  own  powers.  He  is 
sensitive  to  criticism.  He  lacks  initiative,  and  rather 
than  venture  into  untried  paths  of  expression,  he  prefers  to 
lurk  in  what  one  writer  calls  "the  safe  obscurity  of 
mediocre  effort." 

And  yet  this  same  pupil,  if  properly  encouraged  to 
begin  and  to  continue,  always  doing  the  best  he  can,  may  a 
little  later  be  found  rejoicing  in  his  new-found  power  of 
expression,  and  valuing  it  above  all  else  he  calls  his  own. 
The  secret  of  success  is  to  get  him  to  write  along  lines  of 
known  interest,  unhampered  by  the  fear  of  criticism  until 
he  discovers  that  he  can  write.  The  criticisms  may  come 
later,  and  they  will  be  all  the  more  effective  when  they 
do  come,  because  they  find  the  pupil  able  to  stand  them. 

Let  us  take  a  lesson  from  the  landscape  gardener.  He 
has  a  hedge  which  he  desires  to  trim  to  some   pattern. 

1  It  is  not  intended  or  desired  to  urge  any  teacher  to  adopt  these  sug- 
gestions. Many  teachers  have  developed  successful  metliods  of  their  own, 
by  which  they  secure  the  best  of  results.  But  to  those  seeking  sugges- 
tion or  assistance  it  seems  only  fair  to  offer  such  help  as  may  be  drawn 
from  the  experience  of  others. 

640 


Marking  Papers  541 

What  he  does  first  is  to  encourage  a  vigorous  growth. 
He  will  have  no  trouble  cutting  his  hedge  to  shape  when 
the  time  comes. 

Marking  Papers.  —  In  many  cases,  the  teaching  of 
English  has  become  a  burden  on  account  of  the  supposed 
necessity  of  marking  criticisms  in  red  ink  on  a  multitude 
Df  papers.  If  these  Suggestions  are  heeded,  this  work  will 
in  the  main  be  eliminated.  What  is  needed  is  the  criticism 
of  the  class,  rather  than  that  of  the  teacher ;  and  an  im- 
mediate judgment  as  to  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the 
paper,  instead  of  the  teacher's  long-delayed  and  but  little 
noted  criticism. 

Let  selected  papers  be  read  to  the  class,  taking  care  to 
distribute  fairly  the  papers  read.  It  will  not  always 
be  necessary  to  indicate  whose  papers  are  thus  chosen. 
The  papers  of  some  will  hardly  be  worth  the  reading, 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  work  of  certain  pupils  may 
prove  uniformly  interesting  to  the  class.  Interest  must 
to  some  extent  govern  here.  But  the  pupil  who  writes 
well,  and  who  prides  himself  on  it,  must  not  be  allowed  to 
monopolize  attention,  nor  should  the  too  ready  critic  have 
undue  sway,  although  both  may  lend  zest  to  the  work  in 
hand.  In  addition  to  the  papers  thus  read  for  criticism 
one  good  paper  a  day  reproduced  on  the  mimeograph  or 
otherwise,  may  be  handed  round  for  definite  and  prompt 
criticism  as  to  form.     The  reflectoscope  will  help  here. 

Suggestion  Better  than  Criticism.  —  A  word  of  commen- 
dation fitly  spoken  by  the  teacher,  —  sometimes  out  of 
class,  —  and  the  little  touches  of  suggestion  that  the  skill- 
ful instructor  knows  when,  where,  and  how  to  give,  will 
do  much  towards  putting  the  young  writer  at  ease  and 
giving  him  confidence  in  himself.  Let  the  teacher's  work 
as   critic   be   kept   in  abeyance.       The   criticism    of   the 


542  Appendix 

student's   classmates,  properly   guided   and  kept  within 
bounds,  is  far  more  eifective  in  spurring  him  to  effort. 

If  the  student's  paper  is  interesting,  his  classmates  will 
let  him  know ;  and  if  his  work  is  tedious  or  exhibits  any- 
very  glaring  faults,  he  will  not  be  kept  in  ignorance  very 
long.  The  teacher  should  supply  stimulus  and  guidance, 
and  afford  a  certain  enrichment  or  reenforcement  of  the 
student's  thought  and  ability.  It  will  be  found  that  in- 
stead of  one,  or  perhaps  two  papers  a  week,  there  will  be 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  one  paper  a  day  from  each 
member  of  the  class. 

One  Thing  at  a  Time.  —  In  guiding  the  criticisms,  do 
not  require  or  allow  everything  to  be  corrected  at  once. 
You  may  have  to  wink  at  some  blemishes,  and  have  the 
class  do  so,  while  trying  to  remedy  others.  What  at 
times  might  be  just  criticism  may  well  be  set  aside  for 
the  moment,  in  order  to  give  attention  to  what  is  impor- 
tant now. 

Let  the  pupils  feel  that  what  they  are  doing  is  worth 
while  ;  that  they  can  do  it ;  and  that  they  are  going  to  be 
fairly  and  considerately  dealt  with  while  learning  to  do 
it ;  and  they  will  soon  develop  considerable  pride  in  their 
work. 

Lists  of  Errors.  —  With  reference  to  manifest  impro- 
prieties of  sfJeech  or  writing,  let  such  be  dealt  with  as 
they  occur,  always  bearing  in  mind  the  warning  given 
above,  not  to  attempt  to  criticize  everything  at  once.  The 
appointment  of  a  permanent  editorial  committee  from  the 
class  to  report  on  inaccuracies  or  improprieties  of  speech 
will  be  found  worth  while. 

Let  a  list  be  kept  of  errors  corrected  in  class.  It  is 
sometimes  found  effective  to  take  off  extra  credits  for 
errors  that  have  been  previously  corrected  in  class. 


Subjects  for  Composition  543 

Subjects  for  Composition. — It  is  important  to  be  pro- 
vided with  topics  of  fresh  and  varying  interest  for  both 
boys  and  girls.  All  boys  do  not  find  interest  in  the  same 
subjects,  and  girls  have  their  own  interests.  And  what 
was  of  real  interest  last  year  may  not  be  so  to-day.  It  is 
wise  to  have  a  store  of  good  material,  not  hitherto  drawn 
upon,  for  use  in  emergency,  or  when  interest  flags.  This 
is  the  reason  for  the  unusual  number  and  variety  of  exer- 
cises in  this  book. 

Flexibility.  —  In  this  abundance  of  exercises,  it  is 
neither  required  nor  expected  that  any  one  pupil  shall 
write  on  all  the  topics,  or  even  on  any  great  part  of  them. 
The  topics  are  given  in  groups  or  sets  with  the  idea  of 
meeting  the  requirements  of  varying  tastes  on  the  part  of 
the  students.  All  may  write  with  interest  and  profit 
upon  some  of  the  topics  or  themes,  while  there  may  be 
but  one  pupil  in  a  class  who  would  care  to  attempt  some 
of  the  themes  suggested.  Tlie  freer  the  teacher  feels  with 
regard  to  this,  the  better. 

Sometimes  a  word  from  the  instructor  rjuggesting  a 
theme  and  showing  how  to  go  to  work  upon  it,  will  make 
what  before  was  uninviting  seem  wonderfully  attractive. 
Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  break  in  on  the 
student's  initiative.  In  writing,  perhaps  more  than  any- 
where else,  self-help  is  the  best  help. 

Fundamental  Literature.  —  The  exercises  based  on  what 
may  be  termed  fundamental  literature^  that  is,  the  epic  and 
folklore  material  of  Greece,  and  of  Germany  and  the  North, 
will  be  found  especially  helpful.  The  beginner  has  to 
learn  to  write,  and  he  must  have  something  to  write  about. 
This  fundamental  literature,  dealing  with  the  things  that 
appeal  to  the  deep  feelings  of  the  human  heart,  furnishes 
the  student  with  food  for  thought,  while  it  affords  an  easy- 


544  Appendix 

flowing,  straightforward,  and  luminous  style  for  his  model 
in  simple  narrative. 

Of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  be  it  said,  borrowing  a 
figure  from  the  placer  miners  of  early  California,  that  the 
student  who  washes  over  and  sifts  out  these  golden  sands 
will  surely  have  some  gold  for  his  own.  And  concerning 
the  Beowulf  and  the  Nibelungenlied,  and  the  other  legends 
of  the  first  gray  dawning  of  our  race,  let  us  quote  William 
Morris,  who  .says  that  "  we  have  here  the  very  heart  of  the 
North  bloomed  into  song." 

Vocational  Guidance  and  Social  Motives.  —  The  value  of 
exercises  based  upon  what  is  termed  vocational  guidance^ 
is  acknowledged  by  teachers  of  English.  Some  students 
of  the  high  school  are  already  self-supporting,  at  least 
in  part,  while  practically  all  of  them  look  forward  to 
employment  of  some  kind  as  both  desirable  and  necessary. 
Get  the  students  interested  in  lines  of  work  that  look  to 
them  like  avenues  leading  to  success,  and  they  will  talk 
about  them.  Out  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart  the 
mouth  speaketh. 

Closely  allied  to  work  of  this  kind  is  the  employment 
of  the  social  motives  of  the  school  for  composition.  The 
many  exercises  here  given  of  themes  relating  to  social 
motives  and  to  vocational  guidance,  and  of  kindred  themes 
such  as  pageantry  and  dramatization^  have  been  found 
profitable  and  interesting. 

Exercises  Based  on  Pictures.  —  The  exercises  based  on 
pictures  afford  variety  and  promote  interest.  They  are 
scattered  through  the  book  with  the  idea  of  relieving  the 
pupil  from  the  routine  of  his  regular  work.  In  them 
pupils  may  apply  unconsciously  the  principles  previously 
learned,  but  the  idea  back  of  most  of  them  is  merely  to 
furnish  attractive  material  for  the  free  play  of  the  pupil's 


Acknowledgment  545 

fancy,  without   imposing  the    task   of   illustrating   some 
specific  rule. 

Acknowledgment.  —  The  National  Council  of  Teachers  of 
English  is  at  the  forefront  of  progressive  work  in  English, 
and  its  work  is  well  represented  in  The  English  Journal. 
Acknowledgment  is  made  of  the  value  to  Effective  English 
of  both  these  excellent  sources  of  suggestive  material. 

This  book  has  also  drawn  freely  upon  the  Report  of  the 
National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Reorganization  of  High 
School  English;  on  The  Teaching  of  High  School  English^ 
State  Board  of  New'  Jersey ;  on  Requirements  in  Form^ 
Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of  English  ;  and  on  the 
English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 

Basis  of  the  Course.  —  This  Report  of  the  National  Joint 
Committee  ^  states  in  a  brief  paragraph  the  attitude  of  all 
these  authorities.  It  says, . "  The  course  in  composition 
must  be  laid  out  primarily  with  reference  to  the  expres- 
sional  activities  of  the  pupils  of  the  school,  not  with  ref- 
erence to  the  logic  of  rhetorical  theory.  The  gauge  is 
the  pupil's  own  range  of  observation,  power  of  abstraction, 
and  capacity  for  practical  application."  A  careful  study 
of  Effective  English  will  indicate  that  this  theory  has 
dominated  every  page  of  the  book. 

1  Bulletin,  1917,  No.  2,  Department  of  the  Interior,  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Washington,  D.  C. ,  Beorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools, 
is  of  great  importance  to  the  teacher  of  English  in  the  high  school.  This 
is  a  report  compiled  by  James  Fleming  Hosic,  chairman  of  the  National 
Joint  Committee  representing  the  Commission  on  the  Beorganization  of 
Secondary  Education,  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  and  the 
National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English. 


APPENDIX  C 


FINDING  LIST 


Stories  Easily  Told 


Aaron  Burr 220 

Adding  a  chapter 

Silas  Marner 225 

Tale  of  Two  Cities    .     .     .225 
Adventure,  little  story  of  .     .  324 

Aladdin 184 

AUBaba 154,184 

All  hands  to  the  pumps     .     .  344 

Ancient  Mariner 403 

Ancient      mischief      makers 

(Esther) 264 

Beauty,  the  Sleeping     .     .     .184 
Bedouins  of  the  desert .     .     .  291 

Bells  of  Shandon 134 

Ben  Gunn  (Stevenson)      .     .  194 
Birth  of  the  forests  .     .     .     .129 

Black  Prince    ......     63 

Boyhood  of  Raleigh      .     .     .  154 
Boys,  five  stories  about      .     .  101 
Bread  upon  the  Waters  (Kip- 
ling)       200 

Brer  Rabbit  and  Mr.  Fox      .  360 
Broad  survey,  a 496 

Captain   Phips,  buried  treas- 


Chaparral  Prince  (O.  Henry) 

Charge     of    the    Cuirassiers 

(Hugo) 


154 
154 


115 
646 


Christian  and  ApoUyon  (Bun- 

yan) 113 

Christmas  at  King  Arthur's 

Court 11 

Church  wedding 60 

Climbing  the  glacier     .     .     .  452 

Columbus 96 

Cond^,  the  Great 183 

Contest  at  Alaska  fair  .  .  .  175 
Crossing  the  line  .....     78 

Day's  outing 463 

Death  of  Little  Nell  (Dickens)  363 
Death  of  Roland  (Gautier)  .  89 
Death     of      Sidney     Carton 

(Dickens) 203 

Discovery     of     the     Pacific 

(Keats) 390 

Dogs  in  war 22 

Dogs  of  St.  Bernard      .     .     .291 
Dr.  Johnson  and  Lord  Ches- 
terfield   66 

Dream  Children  (Lamb)  .     .  396 

Drop  of  water 203 

Drums  of  the  Fore  and  Aft 

(Kipling) 115 

Effective  appeal,  story  of  an  .  107 

Esther,  story  of 201 

Every  man  a  hero    .     .     .50,  345 


Stories  Easily  Told 


547 


Family  tradition 203 

Finding  of  Moses  ....  14 
Finish,  canoe  race  ....  456 
Fish  I  didn't  catch    ....  404 

Fishing 91 

FootbaU  strategy  .  .  .  .  360 
Forty  thieves  ....  154,  184 
Freshmen  versus  seniors  .  .  25 
Fujiyama  bridge       .     .     .     .468 

Getting  even 263 

Giant  Despair  (Bunyan)  .  .  193 
Girls,  five  stories  about      .     .  101 

Girl's  adventure 264 

Golden  Touch  (Hawthorne)  .  320 

Good  Samaritan 334 

Grandfather's  skating  adven- 
ture      .     36 

Hiawatha,     "  The    Famine " 

(Longfellow)  ....  331 
Holiday  on  the  Columbia .  .  478 
Home     they     brought     her 

warrior  dead  (Tennyson)  343 
Horatius  at  the  Bridge  (Ma- 

caulay) 204 

House  party,  in  Blue   Grass 

home 438 

How  he  won 310 

How  I  came  to  sell  my  English     37 

I  am  the  State !  .  .  .  .  .  183 
Imaginary  visit     .     .     .    174, 412 

Indian  attack 284 

Indian  boyhood 332 

Indian  camp 367 

Indians 42 

Ivanhoe,  archery  contest   .     .  205 
Ivanhoe  (Scott),  pageant       .  177 
Ivanhoe,  Rebecca  at  the  win- 
dow   220 


Jack  London's  success  .     .     .  230 

Jacob  and  Esau 360 

Jacob's  dream  ......  331 

Japanese  holiday 463 

Jim  Hawkins  finds  Ben  Gunn 

(Stevenson) 319 

Joan  of  Arc 30,  177 

John  Paul  Jones  (Watterson)  301 
John  Ridd  sees  Lorna  Doone  218 
John  Ridd  in  the  "  slide  "  in 

the  Bagworthy  river  .     .  224 

La  Jacquerie 213 

Leaping  Frog  (Mark  Twain)  395 
Life      on     the      Mississippi 

(Twain) .224 

Life  savers 60 

Lincoln's  boyhood     ...   7,  359 
Little  pilgrimages     ....  412 

Live  wire      .......  321 

Long  John  Silver      ....  205 

Master  and  Man  (Tolstoi)     .  224 

Midday  plunge 459 

Minotaur  (Hawthorne)      .     .     73 

Mischief  afoot ! 263 

Mother  wit 393 

Napoleon 376 

Narrow  escape 203 

Nathan  Hale 258 

Neighborhood  tradition     .     .  106 

Odin's    Search    for  Wisdom 

(Mabie) 74 

Oliver  Twist  (Dickens)  .  .  154 
One  — two  — three!       .     .     .482 

Pageant,  description  of  ,  178 

Pageant  of  Joan  of  Arc  ,  .  177 
Paredes,  Don  Quixote  .     »     .  228 


548 


Appendix 


Patriotism  of  Miss  Pringle  .  152 
Paul  at  Mar's  Hill,  strategy  .  360 

Paul  Revere 143 

Pickwick  on  the  ice  .  .  .  .  394 
Pied  Piper  of  Ilamelin  .    184,  204 

Pioneer  story 284 

Playing  Robinson  Crusoe  .     .  263 

Pringle  house 105 

Prodigal  son Ill 

Purloined  Letter  (Poe)      .     .  203 

Rajah's  chandelier  ....  153 
Raleigh  and  Queen  Elizabeth  7 
Raleigh's  boyhood    ....      6 

Ready  to  start 87 

Real  mischief  afoot  (Esther)  264 
Rebecca  at  the  window  (Scott)  220 

Rescue 214 

Reunion  on  the  Pringle  stairs, 

Lafayette 219 

Ridd    (John)     and      Carver 

Doone 113 

Ride     with     Mary     Roberts 

Rinehart 163 

Robin  Hood 128 

Robinson  Crusoe 184 

Robinson  Crusoe,  footsteps  in 

the  sand 205 

Romance  of  the  Swan's  Nest 

(Mrs.  Browning)  .  .  .  331 
Rouget  de  Lisle,  Marseillaise .  48 
Ruth,  story  of 201 

Same  against  same   ....  485 

Savonarola .82 

Scotch  Grays,  charge  of  .  .112 
Sea  of  wild  flowers  ....  452 
Shakespeare      at     court     of 

Queen  Elizabeth    .     .     .  124 
Signing  of  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence     234 


Silas  finds  little  Eppie  .     .     .  205 
Silas  Marner  loses  his  gold    .  203 
Skeleton  in  Armor  (Longfel- 
low)  174 

"  Snapping,"  a  detective  story    71 

Start  in  the  440 31 

Stories  to  be  read  aloud  .  .  227 
Story  of  a  railroad  wreck  .  .  32 
Story  of  wreck,  U.  S.  warship  518 
Street  scene,  Cairo  .  .  .  .118 
Street  scene,  Naples ....  209 
Strike,  a  fine 221 

Tarn  O'Shanter  (Bums)  .  .  143 
Theseus  and  the  Minotaur     .     73 

Thin  Red  Line 271 

Three  Men  in  a  Boat  (Je- 
rome)     343 

Three  Strangers  (Hardy)  .     .  360 

Titanic 49,  60 

Tommy  and  Grizel  ....  204 
Topping  the  timbers  .  .  .  130 
Towed  by  girls  on  the  canal .  343 
Trail  of  the  Hawk,  Sinclair 

Lewis,  aviation  story  .     .     74 
Treasure  Island,  impromptu 

play 154 

Treasure  Island,  loss  of  the 

buried  gold 203 

Trip  on  The  Bear 492 

Twenty  Thousand  Leagues 
under  the  Sea  (Jules 
Verne) 154 

Unsavory  Interlude,  Stalky  & 

Co.  (Kipling)     ....     73 

Unusual  experiences      .     .     .  101 

Unusual  methods  of  locomo- 
tion   139 

Unusual  occupations     .     .     .  14(? 


Exercises  Based  on  Vocational  Training     549 


Waiting  for  the  signal     .     .     295 
Waterloo    .......     376 

Waterloo  (Byron)  ....     112 

Wee  Willie  Winkie  (Kipling)  214 
What  I   heard  in  the  apple 

barrel  (Stevenson)      .     .  319 


Who  owns  the  mountains?    .     16 
Winning  with   daylight    be- 
tween     310 

Wrestling    match    (As    You 

Like  ItJ 203 


Exercises  Based  on 

Answering  an  "  ad  "      ...     10 
Application,  letter  of     .     .     .156 

Asking  for  a  job 141 

Automobiles 157 

Building  a  shower  bath,  high 

school  project     ....  116 

Business  English 131 

Business  English,  letters  .     .  154 
Business  letter,  a 23 

Domestic  science 108 

Editorial  writing      .   47,  247,  384 
English  to  sell,  talking,  speak- 
ing, writing 26 

Feature  writing,  newspaper  .  153 
Federal  training  camps,  mili- 
tary, vocational ....  104 

Getting  a  job 10 

Girl  in  the  office,  the     .     .     .  381 
Girls,  how  they  may  be  self- 
supporting     346 

High  school  paper    .     .     .     .189 
High  school  printing  depart- 
ment      109 

Hour  in  a  millinery  shop,  an.     91 

"Make-up"  of  a  newspaper  .  187 
Moot  court 386 


Vocational  Training 

Nurse,  the  trained     . 


13 


Planning  for  an  old-fashioned 

garden 23 

Practical  poultry  problem,  a  .     90 
Project  in  business  English  .  157 

Reindeer  industry,  vocational 
training  for  Eskimos. 
See  Alaskan  pictures  .     .  56,  87, 
175,  295,  395 

Replying    to    business    com- 
plaints   170 

Reporter's  training  ....  126 

Salesman,  the  traveling     .     .     13 

Salesmanship 75 

Scenarios      ....     72,  73, 399 

Trade  dressmaking,  Pratt  In- 
stitute    .109 

Trapping  and  selling  furs      .  346 


Vocational  training 


497 


Writing 497 

advertisements  .  158,  247,  433 
editorials  ....  47,  247,  384 
plays  .  .  .  154,  231,  399,  435 
scenarios  ....  72,  73,  399 
short  stories      .    .    .    205, 230 


550  Appendix 

Examples,  References,  and  Stories  from  the  Bible 


Absalom,  death  of  ...  . 
Ancient  mischief  makers  .  . 
Antithesis,  example  of  .  .  . 
Apostrophe,  David  to  Absa- 
lom    


117 
264 
409 

408 

364 


351 


Barabbas  (Marie  Corelli)  .     . 
Beecher,    II.    W.,    on   Psalm 

xxiii 

Bitter  irony,   Elijah   on  Mt. 

Carmel .......  410 

Boys,  five  stories  about      .     .  101 

Climax,  example  of  ...     .  409 
Crossing  the  Red  Sea    .     .     .  117 

Daniel  and  the  lions      .     .     .  128 
David  and  Goliath    ....  101 

Ear     trieth     words     as    the 

tongue  tasteth  meat  .  .  390 
Elijah  on  Mt.  Carmel  .  .  .117 
Emphasis  by  position,  Peter  .  19 
by  repetition,  Paul  .  .  .  368 
Esau,  stratagem  of  ...  .  101 
Esther,  dramatic  narra- 
tive   264,  201 

Force,  example  of,  Pilate  .     .  364 

Girls,  five  stories  about      .     .  101 
Good  Samaritan 334 

Handwriting  on  the  wall  .     .117 

Independent  paragraph,  the 
Lord's  prayer,  also  23d 
Psalm 337 


Interrogation, 
Paul .     . 


example     of, 


408 


Jacob  and  Esau 101 

Jacob's  dream.  Bethel  .  .  .  331 
Jephthah's  daughter  .  .  .  101 
Joseph  and  his  brethren  101,  435 
Joseph  makes  himself  known  117 
Joseph,  prince  of  Egypt 
Joseph  sold  into  Egypt 


Moses  in  the  bulrushes 

Naaman's  maidservant . 
Narrative 

dramatic,  Esther   .     . 

powerful.  Genesis  i     . 

straightforward,  Ruth 
Noah  sends  out  his  dove 


101 
264 

14 

101 

201 
201 
201 
117 


Pageant  of    the    Old    Testa- 
ment      186 

Paul   on   Mar's  hill,   persua- 
sion .  107 

Peter  and  the  lame  man  .  .  19 
Pharaoh's  daughter  ....  101 
Prodigal  son  ....  Ill,  363 
Pronouns,  careful  use  of  .  .  462 
Prose  rhythm  of  King  James 
version 371 

Rebecca  at  the  well  .    .    .    .101 
Ruth,  story  of 201 

Samson,  story  of 1-^ 

Samuel,  little 1^1 

Stars  in  their  courses  fought 

against  Si  sera  ....  34- 
Summarizing  paragraph,  Ec- 

clesiastes  xii.  13  .     .     .     .341 


Fundamental  Literature 


551 


Fundamental  Literature 


Beowulf 

Beowulf  comes  to  the  Hall  103 

Grendel  flees 116 

Grendel's  last  meal    .     .     .  103 


The  Iliad 

Diomed  and  Ulysses,  book  x 

Hector  lays  aside  his  hel- 
met, book  vi       .... 

Helen  and  the  old  men  on 
the  walls,  book  iii  .     ..   . 

Priam  and  Helen  look  down 
from  the  walls,  book  iii  . 

Priam  begs  the  body  of  Hec- 
tor, book  xxiv    .... 


The  Nibelungenlied 

Crosslet  on  the  vesture  .  . 
Kriemhild's  dream  .  .  . 
Meeting   of    Siegfried   and 

Kriemhild 

Siegfried's  coming  to  Bur- 

giindy 

Siegfried's  youth  .... 


21 


215 


220 


205 


204 
129 

103 

12 
90 


The  Odyssey 

Circe  warns  Ulysses,  book 


204 
61 


.  397 


13 


Kingly  hospitality,  book  iv 
Nausicaa    and    her    hand- 
maidens, book  vi     . 
Nausicaa  playing  ball,  after 

the  washing,  book  vi  .     . 
Nausicaa's  washing  of  the 

garments,  book  vi  .     .     . 
Palace  and  gardens  of  Alci- 

nous,  book  vii     .     .     .     . 
Scylla  and  Charybdis,  book 

xii 

Ulysses    bends    the    bow, 

book  xxi 

Ulysses  casts  aside  his  rags, 

book  xxii  ......  116 

Ulysses  relates  the  story  of 

his  sufferings,  book  vii    .  115 
Ulysses  throws  the  discus, 

book  viii 22 


13 


396 


.  224 


102 


Important  Cautions  on  Requirements  in  Form 

The  permanent  editorial  committee  is  to  watch  the  work  of  the  Eng- 
lish class  in  the  following  subjects : 

Cautions  Sxtbjeots  Page 

I  to  Vn.     Punctuation,  capitalization,  paragraphing  .     .        5 
VIII  to  X.     Writing  sentences,  agreements  of  verbs,  spell- 
ing of  twenty  important  words 24 

XI  to  XIII.     Preparation   of    theme    papers ;    division    of 

words ;  carrying  over  syllables  at  end  of  line      39 

XIV  to  XVI.     Points  in  spelling 41 

XVn  to  XIX.     The  comma  fault ;  use  of  the  comma ;   dan- 

"  gling  participles 63 


55^  Appendix 

Cautions                                                 Subjects  Pagb 
XX,  XXI.     List  from  business  houses  of  words  commonly 

misspelled.     Points  in  spelling 77 

XXII.     Use  of  quotation  marks 125 

XXIII,    XXIV.     Use  of  the  comma 321 

Punctuation  is  dealt  with  on  page  529.     Rules  from  the  Govern- 
ment Style  Book  are  on  page  535. 

Reference  to  Acknowledged  Authorities  on  the  Teaching  of  High 
School  English 

1.  Report  of  the  National  Joint  Committee  on  the  Reorganization  of 
English  in  Secondary  Schools., 

Item  Page 

Purposes  in  Study  of  English 2 

Forming  a  specific  project  or  point  of  view 22 

Gathering,  selecting,  organizing,  and  presenting  ideas  ....  34 

Drawing  on  pupil's  resources,  exploiting  his  dominant  interests  36 

Individual  conferences 80 

Flexibility  and  correctness 82 

Arrangement  and  organization  of  material 88 

What  good  speech  demands 94 

High  school  paper ;  literary  and  dramatic  clubs 189 

Essays 225 

Short  story ;  dramatic  presentation 230 

Round  table  discussion 261 

Planning  and  working  out  a  report 344 

Command  of  language 387 

Articles  of  magazine  length 399 

Work  in  English  of  grades  vii  and  viii 440 

2.  Report  on  Requirements  in  Fomiy  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers 
of  English,  see  Important  Cautions,  or  Permanent  Editorial  Committee. 

3.  New  English  Syllabus,  Board  of  Regents,  New  York. 

Motivation  or  incentive 4 

Reply  to  actual  business  letter 23 

Conference  on  spelling 41 


Authorities  on  Teaching  High  School  English    553 

Item  Paob 

Preparation  in  form  acceptable  to  city  editor 54 

Comma  fault  or  running-on  habit  should  bar  promotion  to'  second 

year 63 

Publication  days 103 

Definite  problems  in  letter-writing 140 

Portrayal  of  historic  events  for  public  occasions 153 

Pageantry  recommended 176 

High  school  paper  worth  while 189 

Writing  short  stories  and  dramatic  work 230 

Making  topical  outlines  and  working  by  them 238 

Round  table  discussion 261 

Public  discussion  league  of  Indiana 279 

Knowledge  of  parliamentary  forms  necessary    . 281 

Not  to  promote  to  third  year  pupils  unable  to  construct  fairly 

good  paragraph 343 

Must  be  able  to  work  out  a  report 346 

Survey  of  work  of  English  class  suggested 347 

Reading  for  one  thing  at  a  time       357 

Speaking  in  public 372 

Arranging  public  occasions !     .     .     .     .  385 

Drill  in  tenses  of  see,  do,  come,  ring  and  go 476 

Guarding  against  use  of  the  wrong  verb  :  can,  may ;  set,  sit;  lie, 

lay ;  teach,  learn;  shall,  will       491 

Use  of  diagrams  not  to  be  stressed 512 

How  analysis  is  to  be  studied 515 

Problems  in  study  of  grammar  in  high  school 524 

4.    Report  on   The  Teaching  of  High   School  English,  State  Board, 
New  Jersey. 

Framing  reply  to  actual  business  letter 10 

Form  for  topical  outlines .  55 

List  from  business  house,  of  words  commonly  misspelled  ...  77 

Pageantry  commended 176 

Oral  exercises  suggested 249 

Synonyms  for  house  brought  out  in  class 307 


INDEX 


References  are  to  pages. 


Abbreviations    ......  532 

important  cautions      ....  5 

improper  use  of 150 

uniform,  for  names  of  months  .  533 

witti  capital  and  period    .     .    .  533 

witli  capital,  without  period     .  533 

without  capital,  with  period  .  533 
Ability  to  speak  or  write,  not 

a  gift 2 

result  of  practice  .  ...  14 
Action,  vigorous  ....  Ill,  116 
Address  (written) 

of  a  letter 146 

on  the  envelope 151 

Address  (spoken) 
four    ways     of     making    an, 

Brander  Matthews  ....  94 
on  the  "  make-up  "  of  a  news- 
paper    188 

Adjectives 469 

articles 469 

cautions  in  use  of 471 

comparison  of 469 

methods  of 470 

constructions  of 472 

definition  of 469,  445 

definitive  (limiting)     ....  469 

descriptive 469 

distinguishing  between  adverbs 

and 494 

equivalents  for 471 

limiting 469 

numerals 4()9 

cardinals 469 

ordinals 469 

pronominal 469 

some  not  compared      ....  471 

Adverbs 493 

adjective  and  adverbial  use  of 

prepositional  phrases    .     .     .  497 

comparison  of 495 


Adverbs  —  Continued 

compound 495 

conjunctive 493 

definition  of 493 

distinguishing  between  adjec- 
tives and 494 

expletive  (see  introductory)      .  495 

formed  from  adjectives   .     .     .  495 

idiomatic  use  of 496 

introductory   .......  495 

kinds  of 493 

nouns  used  as 495 

prepositions    without    objects 

become 494 

simple 493 

Advertising  writing  .   158,  247,  433 
Affirmative,  see  Debate 
Agreement 

pronoun  with  antecedent     .     .  461 

verb  with  subject 486 

Allusion 406 

Ambiguity   (opposed  to  clear- 
ness)      318 

Analysis 515 

And,  uses  of  the  word    ....  317 

Antithesis 408 

Apostrophe 407 

Appeal  (called  oratory  or  per- 
suasion)    106 

examples     of     effective      ap- 
peal      106,  107,  108 

Appearance  in  public    .     .    .  104 

Appreciation,  in  criticism    .     .  52, 
108,  397 
Architectural       conception, 

Walter  Pater 383 

Architectural     plans,     using 

outlines  as 383,  10 

Argument 

answering  objections  ....  260 

in  salesmanship 259 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


Argrument  —  Continued 
arrangement,  strongest  factor 

in 250 

assertion  and  proof      ....  256 

brief 250 

parts  of  the 251 

example  of  the 251 

in  reverse  order 254 

circumstantial  evidence  .     .     .  257 
defending  or  attacking  a  propo- 
sition    259 

driving  home  the  truth    .     .     .  250 

evidence 256 

impeaching  evidence  ....  256 

outline,  importance  of      .     .     .  250 

other  forms  entering  into     .     .  257 

reshaping  an  argument    .     .     .  261 

round  table  discussion     .     .     .  261 
two  kinds  of  reasoning 

deductive 255 

inductive 255 

Arrang-ement 

heart  of  style 382 

importance  in  argument  .     .     .  250 

items  or  headings 89 

of  notes  or  outlines 18 

or  organization  of  material      .  88 

rule  for 383 

value  of 382 

Arrangring  and  sifting  facts  .  32 

Art,  rhetoric  as  an 3 

Article,  how  the  editor  prepares 

an 46 

Articles,  of  magazine  length     .  399 

how  to  market 36 

Attitude  and  gesture    ...  97 
Audience,  deal  with  your  own 

judgment  as  an 14 

Gladstone  on  the 272 

having  regard  to  your     ...  97 

in  debate 273 

Balanced  sentences   ....  313 

Balfour,  visit  to  America       .     .  190 

Ballad 426 

Beauty 389 

examples  of  literary    ....  390 

related  qualities 392 

Blank  verse 423 

Blue  pencil,  editorial      123, 126,  355 


Book  review 247 

Borrowed  material    ....  68 
Brevity,     avoid    undue     (tele- 
graphic style) 162 

Brief,  example  of 251 

parts  of ■  .    .    .    .  251 

in  reverse  order  ..  ".    .     ...  254 
Business 

advertising     ....   158,  433,  247 

answers  to  letters   .    .    .    .    .  162 

characteristics  of    ....    .  136 

clear  statement  necessary    .    .  161 

correspondence  .    .    .     .      131,  530 

"don'ts" 162 

forms .  531 

getting  and  holding     ....  132 

project  in  business  English  .     .  157 

punctuation .530 

requirements  in  letters    .    .    .  161 
simplicity  and  straightforward- 
ness of 530 

Capitalization     .    .     .  5,  6,  532,  538 

Carbon  copies 132 

Card  catalog 69 

Card  plan,  Wendell's  .  .  .  81,  84 
Carrying  over  syllables    .    .      40 

Case 452 

Caution,  as  to  infinitives  .  .  .  481 
against  using  wrong  verb  ,  .  491 
concerning  use  of  adjectives    .    471 

Centering 44 

Chapter  in  continued  story, 

what  each  contains  ....    206 
Characterization,  opening  the 

story  by 200 

Characters  {dramatis  personse)  206 
Choice,  elegance  depends  on  .  371 
Circumstantial  evidence  .  .  257 
Class 

criticism 10,  22,  52 

letter    23, 117, 139,  159,  166,  170,  187 
project   ...       22,  127,  157,  364 
testing  for  some  one  point   .     .    172 
Classic,  how  to  read  a,  Arnold 

Bennett 396 

Classification 191 

Clauses        312,  516,  517 

Clearness,  in  the  sentence  .  .  318 
five  tests  for .319 


Index 


3 


References  are  to  pages. 


Clearness  —  Continued 

Lincoln  on 359 

news  writing  must  be  clear  123,  530 
newspaper  rule  for  ....    530 

of  thought 358 

Clear  seeing- 211 

Climax  ....  199,  200,  207,  409 
Coach  in  debate  .  .  .  267,  271 
Coherence  8, 10, 18,  21,  22,  24, 55,  274 
Collecting  material    .    .    .     65, 88 

Comedy 427 

Comma  63,  64,  321,  322,  531,  534,  535 

Comma  fatdt 63 

Command  of  language  .  .  .  387 
Committee 

pageantry 180 

permanent  editorial  (note  ref- 
erences   to  Important    Cau- 
tions) 
permanent  editorial   .    .      225,  226, 
227,  230,  399,  435,  436 

Common  errors 5*^)7 

Comparison,  description  by      .    216 

adjectives 469 

regular 470 

irregular 470 

some  not  compared  ....    471 

adverbs 495 

regular 495 

irregular 495 

some  not  compared  ....    495 

Complement 472,  475 

Composition,    preposition     in 

composition  with  verbs     .     .    498 
Compound 

adverbs 495 

elements 517 

prepositions  compounded  with 

verbs 500 

relative  pronouns 466 

sentences 520 

Conclusion  .  .  200,  204,  251,  339 
Condensed  novels,  Bret  Harte  207 
Condensed  style  ....  207,  378 
Conference,  individual    ...      80 

round  table 206 

Confusion,    guarding    against 

in  pronouns 318 

in  tenses 476 

Conjunctions  .......    501 


Conjunctions  —  Continued 

coordinate 501 

subordinate    .......  502 

Conjunctive  adverb    .     .      493, 502 

use  of  relative  pronouns       .     .  465 

Connecting  paragraphs    ,     .  340 
Connection,  means  of 

in  paragraphs 341 

in  sentences 317 

Connectives,  relative  pronouns 

as 465 

conjunctions  as 502 

conjunctive  adverbs  as    .     .     .  493 

Connotation 3(i2 

Consecutiveness,      coherence 

implies 18 

Construction,  grammatical      .  512 

Continued  short  story  .    .    .  205 

chapters  in 206 

Conventions,  in  debate    .      265,  267 

in  epic  poetry 423 

in  pastoral  poetry   .     .     •     .     .  427 

Conviction,  in  argument      .    .  192 

driving  it  home,  in  debate   .     .  268 
function  of  closing  speaker,  in 

debate 269 

Coordinate  conjunctions  .    .  501 

Copula 475 

Copulative  verbs 475 

Courtesy,  towards  attendants 

in  library     .......  69 

"  Covering     a    wreck,"     re- 
porter's     26 

Criticism 397 

Criticizing  your  own  work    397-8 

Cumulative  =  heaping  up    .    .  366 

Dactyl 416 

Dash 369 

Debate 265 

Gladstone's  rules  for  speaking  272 

individuality  in  debate    .     .     .  272 

order  of  speakers    .     .     .     .     •  265 

preparation 267 

proposition 265 

suggestions  for  debaters  .     .     .  273 

work  of  each  speaker           .     .  268 
Declension 

nouns 449 

pronouns    ......      461, 466 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


Definition,  exposition  by       .    .  232 

Deerree,  positive 470 

comparative 470 

superlative 470 

Demonstration,  exposition  by  235 

must  be  clear 235 

Denotation 362 

Derivation  of  words  ....  300 

Description    ....    192,  194,  210 

clear  seeing 211 

point  of  view 213 

actual 213 

mental 213 

vivid  memory  and  imagination  212 

word  nainting 210 

Descr^tion  developed 

by  effective  detail 214 

by  artistic  touch 215 

by  comparison 216 

by  enumeration 217 

Descriptive    adjectives,    num- 
ber of      604 

Detective  story 71 

Development  of  paragraph  .  46 

by  cause  an^  effect      ....  336 

by  comparison  or  contrast  .     .  332 

by  repetition 329 

by  use  of  details 333 

by  use  of  examples      ....  334 

Diagraming,  examples     .    .     .  521 

Dictionaries,  use  of     .  289,  304,  303 

good  editions  ....  280,  ."03,  306 

Didactic  poetry 426 

Direct  address,  vocative  case  .  453 

Discrimination 510 

Discussion,  league,  public    .     .  279 

club,  high  school 278 

Dogs 

and  horses,  man's  best  friends  58 

in  war 22 

of  St.  Bernard 291 

policeman's     ,     .         ....  72 
Double   negative,  not  allow- 

al)le 294 

Drama 413, 427 

Drama  League  Monthly    .    .  178 

Dramatic  poetry 427 

Dramatis  persona 206 

Dramatization    ...  10, 128, 153, 
2M,  375,  3()8,  399,  436.  436 


Ease  in  writing i 

result  of  care 371 

Easy-flowing  narrative      .    .    106 

Echo 341 

Editorial  blue  pencil  .  .  .  123 
Editorials,  arranging  .  .  384, 385 
Effectiveness,  testing  for    .     .    247 

Elegance 371 

Elegy 426 

Elements  of  the  sentence      .    616 

Ellipsis -506 

Emphasis 9,  19,  21 

by  figures  of  speech     ....    369 

by  italics 370 

by  position      ......   19,  365 

by  proportion 19,  366 

by  punctuation 369 

by  repetition 20,  368 

in  argument    ....  269,  270,  274 
in  description      .     .'    .     .      218, 224 

in  narration 9,  10 

spurious 370 

Encouraging  pupils  ....    540 

Energy  (force) 361 

everywhere  effective  ....    363 
"  fine  writing  "  destructive  of     364 

Engine  lathe 74 

English  to  sell 
acquiring  a  vocabulary    .     .     .    223 
arranging  and  sifting  a  story  .      32 
articles  of  magazine  length      .    399 
contest  in  newspaper  "make- 
up"      187 

continued  short  stories    .     .    .    205 
directions  for  acquiring  vocab- 
ulary  288 

editorial  blue  pencil    ....    123 

editorials 384 

elements  of  effectiveness     .    .    114 
essentials  of  the  short  story     .    207 

feature  writing        153 

getting    the  gist   of   lectures, 

etc. 227 

getting  the  vocabulary  ready  .      32 
how  the  editor  works  on  an  im- 
portant story 47 

how  English  to  sell  concerns 
the  making  of  a  living :  talk- 
ing, speaking,  writing      .     .      34 
how  the '  *  special "  goes  to  work     29 


Index 


5 


References  are  to  pages. 


Bngrlish  to  sell  —  Continued 
how  he  writes  his  story   ...  29 
how  I  came  to  sell  my  English  37 
how  to  market  short  stories     .  36 
how  to  prepare  Ms.  for  publi- 
cation     . 262 

how  to  write  story  for  publica- 
tion       230 

how  to  write  for  publication    .  411 
important  suggestions  on  Eng- 
lish to  sell 37 

longer  themes 225 

newspaper  training,  Arlo  Bates 

on .123 

newspaper   (vocational)  train- 
ing        229 

"nose  for  news" 47 

preparation  of  Ms.  for  sale  .     .  43 

preparing  reporter's  outline     .  46 
putting    English   in   shape    to 

sell 38 

querying 27, 46 

rival  newspaper  staffs  in  class  52 

selling  your  English    ....  34 

sending  out  a  "  special "      .     .  28 

shaping  a  newspaper  story  .  29,  383 

short  story  work,  how  to  do  it  230 

special  forms  of  exposition  .     .  247 

telegraph  editor 51 

training  in  newspaper  work     .  364 
truth  about  an  author      ...  38 
trying  advertising  writing  .     .  433 
trying  to  get  telegraph  corre- 
spondents      27 

visit  to  newspaper  ofl&ce  .     .     .  188 
where     the     editor    gets    his 

material 47 

where    emphasis   comes    in  a 

news  story 46 

work  of  a  war  correspondent  .  113 
writing  advertisements   .     .     .  158 
writing  an  article  for  publica- 
tion       294 

writing  a  long  query,  one  hun- 
dred words 46 

writing  a  news  story   ....  26 

writing  a  play 399 

English,  effective 1 

Envelope     ........  135 

Epic     ...-,...,.  424 


Epigram ,    .  432 

Epitome  =  summary    ....  31 

Errors,  list  of 509,  542 

Essays,  study  of 225 

Etymology 300 

Evidence 256 

circumstantial 257 

Exclamation,  nominative  by    .  454 

Exclamation  point     .     .      503, 536 

use  of,  not  to  be  encouraged    .  369 

Exhortation 480 

Expletive 495, 502 

Exposition  ....        192,  194,  232 

comparison  or  contrast    .     .     .  236 

defined 192,  232 

demonstration 235 

details,  use  of 2S7 

essentials  of  outline  for   .     .     .  239 

example  of  outline  for     .     .     .  240 

from  outline 244 

general  exposition 246 

illustration 234 

oral 249 

preparing  outline 239 

reports 245 

testing  for  efifect  in      ....  247 

theme  outline  for 238 

Expression,  effective   ....  1 

Extemporaneous  speaking  .  212 

Fable       257 

Farce 428 

Feet,  in  poetry 415 

regular 

iambus  {denote) 416 

trochee  {coming)       ....  416 

dactyl  {modify) 416 

anapest  {contradict)     .    .    .  416 
irregular 

spondee  {dull  line)    ....  420 

pyrrhic  {-ery  in  misery)    .     .  420 

amphibrach  {redeemer)    .     .  420 

Figurative  language     .    .    .  401 

Figures  of  speech 401 

allusion 406 

antithesis 408 

apostrophe 407 

climax 409 

hyperbole 410 

interrogation  .,....,  408 


6 


Index 


References 

Fisrures  of  speech  —Continued 

irony 4(M) 

bitter 410 

gentle 410 

metaphor 404 

metonymy      .......  405 

personification 401 

simile 402 

synecdoche 40(5 

Piling'  systems 132 

Finding  mag-azine  and  peri- 
odical literature  ....  69 

"  Fine  writing  "       364 

Flexibility 543 

Floor  talk 93 

mental  outline  necessary  for    .  93 
Monroe    Doctrine    as    subject 

for 97 

rules  for  the 94 

sequence  of  points  to  be  kept 

in  mind 94 

Force  (energy) 361 

everywhere  effective        .     •     .  3(>3 
*'  fine  writing  "  kills  force       .  364 
profusion  of  adjectives  weak- 
ens        363,  471 

secret  of,  is  in  what  is  left  un- 
said       362 

story  of  younger  Dumas  .     .     .  362 
Wendell's  illustration  of,  from 

Dante 362 

Wendell    on    denotation    and 

connotation 362 

Formation  of  words  ....  512 

Forms  of  discourse    ....  191 

argument 195 

description 194 

effective  argument      ....  250 

effective  description     ....  210 

effective  exposition      ....  232 

effective  narration       ....  198 

exposition •    .  11>4 

narration 1<)3 

Fundamental  literature    .     .  54.? 

Gathering-  facts 47 

Gender 4.">7 

pensonified  nouns 4r)S 

Gerunds,  use 481 

examples  of 482 


are  to  pages. 

Gerunds  —  Continued 
distinction  between,  and  par- 
ticiples       483 

and  infinitives 481 

Gesture 9T 

Gist,  getting  the    .    %    9,  102, 129,  227 
Grammar    ......*..    440 

Grouping,  subordinate  parts 
of  speech  about  nouns  and 
verbs 441,  442 

Halcyon,  derivation  of     ...    306 
Headings,   card   plan,   of  out- 
lines     82,  84,  89 

Headliner,  art  of  the    ....    207 

Headlines 26,29 

Hexameter     ....    416,  418,  431 
High  School  English,  reorgan- 
ization of 545 

History,  of  English  language     .    300 
in  dramatic  writing     ....    430 

of  words 300 

Homonyms 505 

House,  synonyms  for  (footnote)     307 

Humor 392,  394 

distinction   between   wit    and, 

E.  P.  Whipple 3{)4 

Hyperbole 410 

Hyphen       .40,531 

Iambic 416 

Ideas,  when  they  come       .     .    66,  68 

Idioms 496 

Idylls 425 

Ignoring  a  point,  may  be  ad- 
visable       270 

not  the  best  way 270 

Illustration,  preparing  an     .    .  310 

exposition  by 234 

Imagery,  in  poetry 414 

Imagination,  use  of     ...    .  59 

vivid,  in  oral  work       ....  212 

word  pictures 61 

Imperative  mode 480 

sentences 517 

Impersonation .'^ 

Impromptu  oral  work  ...  75 

Incentive  (motivation )     .    .     .  4 

necessary  (footnote)    ....  4 
Incoherence,  opposed  to  cohe- 
rence   .114 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


Indenting" 6, 44 

Independent  paragraph    .    .  86 

Indicative  mode 477 

Indirect  question 479 

Inductive  reasoning-  ....  255 
Infinitives,    how  distiuguishcd 

from  gerunds 481 

Infinitive  mode 480 

Informal,    round   table   discus- 
sion should  be      ....  261 
Intensive  moment      ....  200 
Interjection    .    .     .     .     .      503, 446 

other  words  as 503 

Interrogative    use    of    s'mll 

and  will      ....    481),  490,  491 

pronouns 46(> 

Intransitive  verbs       ....  474 

Introduction 1<)9 

Invention 65, 71 

Irony   .     .    .     .  • 409 

bitter 409 

gentle 409 

Irregular  comparison,  adjec- 
tives      470 

of  adverbs 495 

Irregular  verbs 476 


Joffre,  visit  to  America     .     .     .  190 

Judges 

in  debate 265 

courtesy  towards      ....  267 

decision  to  be  respected    .     .  266 

Judging  your  own  work    356,  357 

Judgment,  dealing  with  your 

own  as  with  an  audience       .  14 


Kinds  of  writing 
advertising  writing      .   158,  247, 

book  reviews 

business  letters 

cable  messages 

day  letters 

dramatic  writing     154,  231,  3W, 
editorial  writing      .     .     47,  247, 


feature  writing 

"  follow  up  "  letters    .... 
for  the  "movies,"  moving  pic- 
tures   72,  73, 


433 
247 
161 
378 
380 
435 
384 
225 
153 
158 


Kinds  of  writing  —  Continued 

home  letters 131 

illustrations 310 

letter  writing 131 

local  news       52,  188 

magazine  articles 399 

news  stories   ....       36,  37,  383 

night  letters 162,  380 

play  writing  .  .  154,  231,  399,  435 
querying,  telegraph  news    .     27,  46 

reporting 29,  46,  123 

reports,  making       .  76,  245,  345,  386 

sales  letters 158 

scenarios 72,  73,  399 

short  story  writing      ...    36,  37, 
205,  207,  230,  399 

sporting  page 53 

telegrams 378 

telegraph  correspondence  .  .  27 
travel  letters  ....  128, 431 
war  correspondent       ....     113 

Lafayette,  visit  to  America      .  219 

Language,  law  of    ..."..  286 
Letters 

advertising 155 

answer  to  advertisement      .     .  155 

answer  to  business       ....  171 

application 154,  156 

asking  for  a  job 141 

both  sides  of  a  correspondence  159 

cancelling  an  item  in  an  order  171 

class  correspondence        .     .     .  139 

class  letter 159 

complaint 170 

confirming  a  telephone  conver- 
sation         171 

countermanding  a  Pullman  res- 
ervation         170 

courtesy,  notes  of 155 

dictation 171 

displayed,  formal  invitations  .  165 

engraved  invitations   ....  165 

essential  elements  of  letters     .  131 

excuse  for  tardiness    ....  137 

formal  letter       171 

forms  of  invitation      ....  165 

friendly  letters 194 

home  letters 131 

informal  invitations    ....  167 


8 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


Letters — Continued 

interscholastic     letter-writing 
contest 

invitation  issued  by  class    .     . 

invitations  and  replies     .    .    . 

Lamb 

Lincoln  to  Mrs.  Bixby      .    .    . 

miscellaneous 

opening     sentence,      business 
letter       

order,  writing  an 

ordering     from     mail     order 
house       

problems  in  letter  writing   .     . 

project  in  business  English 
travel  letters  ....      128, 

recommendation 

reply  to  informal 

formal 

request 

requirements  in  business  letters 

reserving  a  Pullman    .... 

review  exercises  in      .... 

rewrite,  if  necessary   .... 

sales  letters 

school  notes 

social  motives 

social  notes 

students  dictating  letters     .     . 

suggestions  for  letter  writing  . 

taking  down  substance  of  let- 
ters      

talk  on  letters 

telegraph  style  not  admissible 

tracing  carload  shipment     .     . 

tracing  express  package       .     . 

tracing  parcel  post  package     . 
Library 

card  catalog 

courtesies  due  attendants    .     . 

finding  magazine  and  periodi- 
cal literature 

using  the    ......... 

Like,  as  a  preposition    .... 

Lines,  in  poetry 

Longrer  themes  .     103, 225,  411, 


171 
166 
164 
136 
136 
172 

157 


170 
140 
157 
431 
154 
167 
164 
141 
161 
170 
169 
162 
171 
164 
157 
156 
155 
134 

154 
159 
162 
169 
154 
169 


69 

69 

74 

499 

414 

436 


Magrazines,  references  to 

Everybody's 270 

Outlook 342 


27 


230 
411 


Magrazine  lengrth,  articles  of  . 
Make-up  of  newspaper      .    . 
Manuscript 
mechanical    side    of    literary 

work 

preparation  for  longer  themes 
preparation  of,  for  "English 

to  Sell" 43 

Margin,  leaving  sufficient     .    .  39 
Market,  for  short,  well  written 

articles    .     .  " 36 

Masks 428 

Material 

collecting 65 

effective  use  of 81 

in  notebook 66 

in  scrapbook 67 

organizing       88, 89 

your  own  thought  best  source 

of    .... 68 

Measure,  swift  moving  or  slow  421 

Measurement 377 

Meeting" 

announcing  the  purpose  of  a    .  372 

calling  to  order  ......  281 

of  oral  club 298 

Melodrama 429 

Melody,  prose  rhythm  gives  un- 
obtrusive       371 

Memory,  vivid,  in  extempora- 
neous speaking 212 

Metaphor 404 

Metonymy       405 

Millinery  shop,  hour  in  a     .     .  91 

Misuse  of  Verbs 507 

of  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunc- 
tions     609 

of  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns  508 

Mock  trial 387 

Mode 477 

Moment,  intensive 200 

Monotony  =  opposite  of  variety  420 
Monroe  Doctrine 
America  not  colonizing  ground, 

Roosevelt 100 

originally  stated,  Monroe    .    .  98 

purpose  and  object,  Olney  .    .  '  99 

reaffirmed,  Cleveland  ....  98 
United  States  will  never  seek 

territory  by  conquest,  Wilson  100 


Index 


d 


References  are  to  pages. 


Monroe  Doctrine  —  Continued 
wliat  tlie  Doctrine  does,  Cin- 
cinnati Enquirer 100 

Mood  influencing  movement  111 

Moot  court 386 

Motivation  (incentive)      ...  4 

Movement 

examples  of  vigorous  action     .  112 

harmonizes  with  mood     ...  Ill 

impetuosity  of  description   .     .  113 

long  syllables  in  poetry,  slower  421 

of  water 223 

swift  flowing  story      ....  115 
use  of  spondee,  makes  rhythm 

slower 420 

when   it  quickens,   verbs  pre- 
dominate        Ill 

Moving"  pictures     .    .     .    .     72,  73 

scenarios  for 72 

*'  Muddling  throufirh  "...  297 

Narration 191,  198 

essential  steps  in 199 

Narrative  • 

continued  short  story  ....  205 

essentials  of  the  short  story  .  207 

special  test  in  narrative    .     .  205 

essential  steps  in 199 

introduction 199 

opening  the  story     ....  200 

the  climax 200 

the  conclusion 200 

the  intensive  moment   .     .     .  200 

the  suspense 200 

examples  of  fine  narrative  .     .  201 

Ruth,  Esther,  Genesis  i     .     .  201 

plot,  controlling  force  in      .     .  198 

point  of  view 198 

what  narrative  deals  with    .     .  198 
Negative 

double,  not  allowable  ....  294 

in  debate 266 

News 26 

Newspaper 

contest  in  "  making  up  "     .     .  187 

high  school  paper 189 

judging    the    specimen    new% 

paper 188 

loose-leaf  newspaper   ....  187 

newspaper  staff 364 


Newspaper — Continued 

parts  of  the 187 

first    page,    telegraph    and 

cable 188 

local  page 188 

page  of  advertising  ....  188 

second  page,  general  news    .  188 

rival  newspaper  staffs      ...  52 

features 53 

feature  writing 153 

interesting  the  press     ...  54 
managing,     assistant,     tele- 
graph,   sporting,    headline 

editors,  sub-editor     ...  52 
news      writers,       reporters, 

proof  readers,  headliners   .  53 

publication 54 

required  standard     ....  54 
shaping  a  newspaper  story  29,  383 
school     journpUsm,     may    be 

made  a  vital  force    .     .     .  189 

editorial  on  pageantry      .     .  189 

visit  to  newspaper  office  .     .     .  188 
Newspaper  articles 
Cincinnati  Enquirer,  "Monroe 

Doctrine" 100 

Independent,  "  Interview  with 

A.  Lincoln " 359 

New     York     Evening     Post, 

"Said" 308 

Outlook,      "God's     Plan      in 

History" 342 

Saturday  Evening  Post,  "Ar- 
rowheads"    320 

Newspaper  office,  visit  to  .    .  188 
Newspaper  stories 
Chicago  Tribune,  "A  Wreck"  26 
Cincinnati  Enquirer,  "The  Ti- 
tanic"        51 

effective  appeal 105 

London  Chronicle,  "  Defeat  at 

Lule  Burgas" 113 

London  Times,  "Balaklava"  .  143 
Scripps-McRae    League,   "The 

Titanic"       49 

News  writers,  how  trained  .    .  123 

write  clearly 529 

Night  letters 162,  380 

Nominative 453 

Non-restrictive  clauses     .    .  322 


10 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


Notebook 66 

Noun 447 

case 452 

common 447 

abstract 447 

collective 447 

concrete 447 

verbal 448 

declension 449 

equivalents  for  nouns  ....  459 

gender 457 

number .  449 

proper 447 

Number 449 

Object 

direct  and  indirect 455 

of  a  preposition 455 

of  a  verb 455 

Objective 

adverbial 455 

complement 455 

Obsolete 286 

Occasions,  arranging  for  public  385 

Ode 426 

Omission 
author    known    by    what    he 

omits,  Schiller 18 

good  story  depends  on  what 
you  leave  out,  Elbert  Hub- 
bard      123 

influence  of  "blue  pencil,"  Arlo 

Bates  ........  123 

removal  of  surplusage,  Walter 

Pater 120 

secret  of  force  in  what  is  left 

unsaid,  Barrett  Wendell  .     .  362 
striking    out    needless   words, 

Dumas ;J62 

Opera 429 

grand 430 

Oral  work 

applying  the  rules  for  speaking  102 

effective  appeal 10() 

effective  debate       265 

effective  speaking 273 

four  ways  of  making  an  ad- 
dress, Brander  Matthews.     .  94 
Gladstone's  rules  for  speaking  272 
high  school  gridiron  club     .    .  375 


Oral  work  —  Continued 
hints  on  speech  making,Thomas 
Wentworth  Higginson .  .  . 
how  to  organize  a  club  .  .  . 
imaginary  banquet  .... 
knowledge    of    parliamentary 

rules  or  forms 

meeting  of  the  oral  club  .     .     . 
oral  work  for  special  occasions 
public  discussion  club      .     .     . 
public  discussion  league  .     .     . 
round  table  discussion     ,     .     . 
Sarcey,  M.  Francisque,  on  pub- 
lic speaking      ...... 

short  themes  for  oral  work  .     . 

speaking  in  public 

suggestions  for  debaters       .     . 

vivid  memory  and  imagination 

in  extemporaneous  speech 

Oratory 

Order  of  parsing,  all  parts  of 

speech      

Organizing" 

material 

newspaper  staff 

oral  club 

public  discussion  club      .     .     . 
Origin  of  poetic  terms,  foot, 

etc 

Outline 
coherence  obtained  by  follow- 
ing an 

Edward  Everett's  illustration  . 
essentials  of  a  theme  .... 

example  of  a  brief 

exposition  from 

how  the  woodpecker  is  adapted 
to  its  mode  of  life     .... 
importance  of  arrangement 
mental  or  written,  important 

to  speaker 

or  brief,  in  argument  .     . 
organizing  material     .     . 
parts  of  the  theme  outluie 
theme  outline  in  exposition 
time  should  be  given  to  making 

theme  outlines,  (footnote) 
to  bring  out  points  you  have  in 

mind 

topical 


95 

279 
374 

281 
298 
372 
278 
279 
261 

95 
101 
385 
273 

212 
106 

512 

88 
364 
298 
279 

415 


24 

84 
239 
251 
244 

240 

382 


95 
250 

89 
239 
238 

238 

73 

56 


Index 


11 


References  are  to  pages. 


Outline  —  Continued 
using,  as  builder  refers  to  ar- 
chitect's plans       

Watterson's 

Wendell's  card  plan  for  .     .     . 


45,  325, 


81,  84 


Pageantry   .    .    . 
Paragraphs     .    . 

arranging   .     .     . 

card  plan  for  .     . 

concluding 

connecting 

conversational,  how  written     . 

defined   

development  by 
comparison  or  contrast     .     . 

repetition 

use  of  cause  and  effect      .     . 

use  of  details 

use  of  examples 

effect     secured     by    long  and 
short    

effective 

indenting 

independent 86, 

introductory 86, 

long  and  short 

means  of  connection  in    .     .     . 

planning  for 84, 

related 

relation  to  sentences    .... 

secret  of  paragraphing     .     .     . 

suggestions  to  the  writer  on     . 

summarizing 87, 

summarizing,  newspaper  usage 
of    ... 87, 

survey  of 

testing  your 

topic  statement  of  .     .     .     .87, 

transitional 

unity  in 

Parliamentary  forms     .    .    . 

Parsing 

Participles,  how  distinguished 

from  gerunds 

Parts  of  speech       

distinguishing  between    .     .     . 

right  use  of 

what  decides  the  part  of  speech 
Passive  voice 


10 
201 

81 

176 
345 
327 
337 
339 
340 
54 
325 

332 
329 
335 
333 
334 

326 

45 

44 

337 

339 

326 

341 

326 

86 

325 

45 

329 

340 

341 
346 
327 
327 
340 
52 
281 
513 

483 
445 
446 
505 
446 
477 


Pastorals 

Pathos 

Pauses,  rhetorical  .  . 
Pentameter  .... 
Perfecting  style     .    . 

Period 5, 5:)0 

Personification  .  .  . 
Perspicuity  (clearness) 
Persuasion  .... 
Photo  drama,  scenario     .     .     7: 

Phrases 312, 

elements  of  second  class       .     . 
used    adverbially  and   as  ad- 
jectives    

Pirate  stories 

Pleonasm 

Plot 198; 

Plural      .     .     

Poetry 

differ*»nce  between,  and  prose 
drama 

comedy 

history 

tragedy  ........ 

kinds  of 

didactic 

dramatic 

epic 

lyric 

pastoral  

satirical 

forms  of 

purpose  of 

style  in  .  • 

Point  of  view,  actual  .... 

mental 

Possessive 

Postal  cards 

Practice,  rightly  directed     .     . 
Precision     ........ 

Predicate 

Preposition 

Projects       JK) 

Pronouns    

careful  use  of 

Proportion,  emphasis  by  .     .     . 

Propriety 

how    to    attain    propriety    of 

speech      

improprieties 


116, 


427 
395 
532 
417 
121 

,532 
401 
358 
106 

2,73 
472 
516 

497 
154 
294 
203 
449 
413 
413 

427 
430 
427 
424 
426 
428 
424 
426 
427 
427 
414 
413 
414 
213 
214 
454 
135 
2 
295 
441 
498 
127 
459 
318 
366 
291 


293 
291 


12 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


Propriety  —  Continued 

proper  use  of  prepositions    .     .  292 

Publication,  methods  of  .     .    .  54 

days 103 

Public  occasions 385 

Punctuation 629 

close 530 

in  business  letters 630 

open 532' 

rules    from    the    Style    Book, 

United  States  printing  office  635 

tendency  towards  simplicity    .  529 

Puns 393 


Query 27 

Question 
in  debate,  called  proposition    .    265 
Lincoln's     reply    to    question 

about  his  style 359 

shall  and  will  in  questions     490,  491 

Quintilian's  two  rules 
whatever  does  not  help,  hinders    319 
writer  rmist  be  understood  .     .    358 

Quotation  marks    .    .    .      534, 536 


Beading  your  papers  for  one 

thing  at  a  time      .     .  357 
Reasoning- 
inductive    255 

deductive 255 

Rebuttal 273 

Recitation 
by   topical   outline,    see   sum- 
maries at  end  of  each  chapter      14 
preparation  for  ...    .        55,  252 

Reflectoscope 11,541 

Refutation 269,  270,  273 

Removal  of  surplusage      .    .    120 

Reports,  expository 245 

of     a    committee,    or     round 

table 262,  Mi 

on  paragraphing 347 

on  processes 386 

on  your  own  interests  (see  also 

footnote) 346 

secretary's 280 

Reshaping 126,  38? 

Restating 297 

Restrictive  clause      ....    322 


Review 

book  review 247 

by  topical  outline 65 

Revising 

Bates  on 123 

"boiling  down"      .     .   239,297,378 

Carlyle  on 124 

condensing 126 

Cowper  on 121 

Franklin  on 121 

Hubbard  on 122 

Maupassant  on 121 

reshaping 120,  126 

Smith  on 122 

Stevenson  on       121 

Revision 120, 127 

Rhetoric 2,  3 

Rhyme .422 

Rhythm 

in  poetry 414,  421 

in  prose 371 

Romances,  metrical      ....    425 

Round  table 
directions  for  holding  ....    261 
importance  of  (footnote)      .     .    261 
on  "  make-up  "  of  newspaper  .    187 

on  slang 290 

suggested  exercises  for    .      262,  368 
survey  on  status  of  the  English 

class 347 

vocational  inquiry  in  ...    .    262 

Salesmanship     ...       13,  75, 373 

Satire       427 

Saying  and  feeling.  Burroughs  1 

Scanning 416 

Scenario  writing    .     .    .72,  73,  399 

Scrapbook       67 

Selection,   an   element  of    ele- 
gance    371 

Selling  your  English,  se^  Eng- 
lish to  sell 26 

Semicolon 634 

Sentences 

balance  in 313 

cadence,  prose  rhythm     .    .    .  371 

clearness 318 

five  tests  for  clearness  .    .    .  319 

coherence 18 

connectives 317 


Index 


13 


References  are  to  pages. 


Sentences  —  Continued 

dignity 311 

ease 314, 371 

effective 318 

elegance 371 

empliasis 19 

force 361 

kinds  of 

declarative  . 517 

exclamatory 518 

imperative 517 

interrogative 517 

long 311 

loose 313 

periodic 314 

short       311 

structure  of 

simple 518 

complex 519 

compound    .......    520 

topic  sentence,  best  test  of  the 

paragraph 327 

unity 310 

four  tests  for  unity  .     .     .     .    317 

variety   .     .  • 312 

Sequence    (or    outline)     for 

speaking 94, 9."» 

Shakespeare,  no  easy  writer    .    12  J 

Simile 402 

Simplicity,  in  punctuation    .     .    52t) 
business  requires  this  ....    530 
Skeleton  =  sequence  or  outline, 

for  speaking     ....         94, 1)5 
Slang 
adds  certain  sprightliness    .     .    288 

Autocrat  on 2G1 

avoid  objectionable     ....    288 

definition  of 287 

its  origin 287 

round  table  discussion  on     .     .    290 

why  objectionable 288 

Social  motives    ....      I7fi,  543 

Songs 426,  4.34 

Sonnet 434, 426 

Speaking 
attitude  and  gesture  in    .    .    .      97 
four  ways  of  making  an  ad- 
dress, Matthews 94 

Higginson's   hints    on    speech 
making 95 


Speaking—  Continued 

high  school  gridiron  club     .     .  375 

imaginary  banquet      ....  374 

make  your  words  felt       ...  2 

oral  work  for  special  occasions  372 

public  occasions 385 

rules  for,  Gladstone     ....  272 

Sarcey's  suggestions  on   .     .     .  95 

Sporting  page,  style  of   .     .     .  53 

Stanza 430 

Story 

continued  short  story       .     .     .  205 
short  story    27,  36,  205,  207,  399,  230 
telling  (narration)  .     .     .      191,  198 
Structure  of    sentence  shown 

in  analysis 441,  442 

sentences  divided  according  to  518 
Style 

defined 349 

effective,  defined  by  Swift,  Hill, 

Spencer 354 

in  prose 350 

mannerisms,  to  be  avoided  .    .  355 

marked  differences  in      ...  354 
properties  of 

clearness 358 

interview    with    Abraham 

Lincoln  on 359 

of  expression 358 

of  thought 358 

elegance 371 

prose  rhythm  an  aid  to  .     .  371 

emphasis 365 

by  figures  of  speech  .    .     .  369 

by  italicizing 370 

by  position 365 

by  proportion 366 

by  punctuation      ....  369 

by  repetition 368 

force  or  energy 361 

everywhere  effective      .     .  363 
"fine  writing"  destructive 

of 364 

unity 361 

suggestions  for  acquiring  a       .  356 

Subject  of  the  sentence    .     .  441 

Subjects  for  compositions     .     .  543 

for  debate  (the  proposition)      .  265 

Subjunctive 478 

Subordinate,  clause     ....  619 


14 


Index 


References  are  to  pages. 


-Subordinate  —  Coiitimmd 

conjunctions 

elements 

Sugg-estion,  better  than  crit 


502 
518 


cisni 

Suggestions,   for  acquiring 

style 

to  teachers  of  English  .  . 
Suppression,  effective  .  . 
Surplusage,  removal  of  .  . 
Survey,  vocational  .     .     .     . 

Suspense     

Swift-flowing  story    .     .     . 

Synecdoche  

Synonyms 


.    641 
a 

.    356 

.    540 

.     120 

.     120 

.    497 

200,  207 

.     Ill 

405,  406 

300,504 


Talk 

at  home  of  Menelaus   .... 

floor  talk 

persuasive 

rules  for 

table  talk 

what  speech  demands      .     .     . 
Talking 

how  "  English  to  Sell "  concerns 

Talks  on  letters 

Taste 

a  cultivated . 

Arnold  Bennett  on 

how  educated,  Goethe      .     .     . 

how  to  form  it 

literary 

Tautology 

Teams  in  debate 

team  work 

Telegrams 

day  or  night  letters      .... 

what  items  are  charged  for 
Telegraphic  style,  not  allow- 
able      

Telephone   conversation,    con 

firming  a 

Tense  .    .         

Testimony 

circumstantial  evidence  .     .     . 

direct     

Testa 

five  for  clearness 

for  unity,  (coherence,  and  em- 
phasis in  descriptive  narrative 


61 

<>3 
514 

94 
153 

95 
1 

34 
159 
389 
389 
396 
389 
3^)0 
229 
294 
267 
267 
171 
380 
378 

162 

171 
484 

257 
256 

319 

224 


Tests  —  Continued 
four  for  unity      .     .     .     .     .     .317 

special  test  in  narration  .     .     .  205 

testing  for  effective  exposition  247 

testing  for  some  one  point   .     .  172 

testing  your  own  work    ...  9 
Themes,  longer    .     411,  225,  238,  436 
short,  for  oral  work     .     .      249,  101 

Thoughts,  arranghig    ....  81 

best  source  of  material   ...  68 
save  your  first  thoughts       .     66, 68 

Time  order 19 

Titanic,  wreck  of  the    ...     .  49 

Title,  where  to  write  it      ...  44 

Toastmaster 375 

Toasts 375 

Topical  outlines 55 

Topic   sentence,   test    for  the 

paragraph 327 

Topics,   for  one   hundred    and 

fifty  words       381 

Training,  value  of,  to  writer      .  126 
manual  training,  use  of  engine 

lathe 74 

See  Vocational  Training      .     .  549 

Transitional  paragraphs   .    .  340 
Travel  letters     ....      128,  431 

Trochee 416 

Tropes  (figures) 401 

Truth  about  an  author       .    .  38 
Typewriter 

influence  on  letter  writing  .     .  132 

on  punctuation 531 

when  not  to  be  used     ....  133 

Unit 

paragraph,  the  unit  of     .     .     .  326 
your  written  page,  the  unit  of 

measurement        377 

Unity ...  8 

16,  18,  21,  218,  224,  239,  274,  361 

Unusual  experiences     ...  101 

Usage,  good  or  established    .     .  286 

Using  the  library 2(>8 

Variety,  in  poetry    .     .     .      418, 420 

Verbals 481 

Verbosity  (pleonasm)       .     .    .    294 

Verbs       473-492 

careful  use  of 489 


Index 


15 


References  are  to  pages 


Verbs  —  Continued 
predominate        in        vigorous 

writing Ill 

Verse 

blank  verse 423 

"jingles"       434 

limericks 434 

measure 415 

origin  of  term 415 

Vigorous  action      111,  112,  115,  116 

Visualizing 59,  60,  61 

Vivacity  (-uprightly  Englisli)     .  53 
Vocabulary     ....     32,  223, 288 

Vocational  guidance     .     .     .  544 

Vocational  training   ....  541) 

Voice 477 

Weaving  in  words     ....  383 

Wit 

defined •    .  392 

distinguished  from  humor    .     .  391 

from  pathos 395 

Word  painting 210 

fine  example  of,  Thackeray      .  210 

Word  pictures 61 

Words 285 

Anglo-Saxon 300 

antonyms 505 

colloquial 286 

counting  your  words   .     ,     .     .  44 


Words  —  Continued 

derivation  of 300 

division  of,  in  syllables    ...  41 

etymology 306 

exact 295 

fitly  spoken  (propriety)    .     .     .  291 

forcible 362 

foreign 286 

French 302 

homonyms 505 

Latin    " 302 

new 287 

Norman-French 302* 

obsolete 286 

overworked 288 

pleonasm 294 

redundancy 294 

remembering  troublesome    .     .  42 

slang 287 

synonyms 3l0 

little    study    in    synonyms, 

"Said" 308 

tautology 294 

■  too  few  (telegraphic  style)  .     .  162 

transposition  of,    for  emphasis  18 

troublesome 42 

usage,  established 28(5 

verbosity  (akin  to  pleonasm)   .  2V)4 

vocabulary,  acquiring  a  .     .     .  288 

Writing,  forcible 2 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


References  are  to  pages. 


Addison,  Joseph    .     .    .    .     .    410 
Arabian  Nights  ....      154,  394 

kristotle 311,401 

Arnold,  Matthew 403 

Bacon,  Francis    ....      144,  265 
Bates,  Arlo        123,  191,  232,  364,  397 

Bates,  E.  W 179 

Beecher,  H.  W 352 

Bennett,  Arnold      .     .     .      389, 396 

Bennett,  H.  H 190 

Benson,  F.  R 179 

Black,  Frank  S.  .    ' 237 

Blackmore,  R.  D.    .     .  113,  218,  224 
Blair,  Hugh    3,  210,  295,  311,  377,  391 

Bolingbroke,  Lord 318 

Boone,  Daniel 284 

Bourdillon,   F.  W 423 

Browning-,  Elizabeth  Barrett    331 
Browning,  Robert       .     .      425,  426 

Bryant,  W.  C 404 

See  Translations,  Homer 
Bryce,  James      ....      340, 343 
Burke,  Edmund 2:38 

328,  343,  350,  363,  372 
Bums,  Robert .143 

343,  3{)6,  402,  412,  427 

Burrougrhs,  John 1 

Byron,  Lord     .     .    Ill,  112,  285, 404 


Caesar,  Julius 
Campbell,  Thomas 
Carlyle,  Thomas 

Cato 

Cervantes,  Miguel  de 
Channing,  William  E 
Charles  II    ...    . 
Chaucer.  Geoffrey 
Chesterfield,  Lord 
Cleveland,  Grover 


.  318 
.  434 

112,  124 
.   20 

228,  394 
.  350 
.  432 

425,  43;{ 
.  161 
.   99 


Coleridge,  Lord 393 

Coleridge,  Samuel  T.  .  403,  408 
CoUins,  William  .  .  .  402, 458 
Cooper,  James  Fennimore    .      42 

Corelli,  Marie .364 

Cowper,  William  121,  143,  363,  418 
Cox,  John  Harrington    ...      11 

Craig,  A.  T 179 

Crawford 129, 424 

Crawford,  F.  Marion.    .    .    .    534 

Dana,  R.  H 343 

Dante  Alighieri  ....      362,  424 

Davol,  Ralph 179 

Defoe,  Daniel      ...   184,  205,  3.'36 

Dickens,  Charles (53 

113,  154,  317,  :m,  363,  372,  394,  405 

Donahoe,  Martin  H 113 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman     .    .    190 

Dryden,  John 176 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  younger  .  3(52 
Dye,  Charity 178 

Earle ...    116 

Eastman,  Charles  Alexander  332 
Eliot,  George  (Mrs.  Lewes)   216,  435 

Emmet,  Robert 107 

Erskine,   Lord 394 

Evarts,  William  M 393 

Everett,  Edward 85 


Farrar,  F.  W.      .     . 
Finch,  Francis  Miles 
Franklin,  Benjamin 


407 
258 
121 


Gautier,  Th^ophile  ....  425 
Gladstone,  William  E.  .  .  .  272 
Goethe,  Wolfgang  von  ...  389 
Goldsmith,  Oliver  .  .  .  415,  428 
Grant       420 


10 


Index  of  Authors 


17 


References  are  to  pages. 


Gray,  Thomas  .  .  .401,  414,  431 
Grinnell,  George  Bird  .  ,  .  ;«2 
Gwynne,  Charles  T 60 

Hambridg-e,  Jay 246 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler    .     .     .    360 

Hardy,  Thomas       360 

Harte,  Bret 154,  207 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel  ...      73 
320,  339,  350 

Henry,  0 154,  216 

Henry,  Patrick 19,  312 

Hig-g-inson.    Thomas    Went- 

worth 95 

Hill,  A.  S. 354 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell    .     .    261 

Homer 424 

See  Fundamental  Literature  .  551 
Hood,  Thomas  ....  39(3,  423 
Hosic,  James  Fleming-  .  .  .  545 
Hubbard,  Elbert  .  .  .  122, 412 
Hugo,  Victor  ....  112,  113,  409 
Huxley,  Thomas 195 

Ingelow,  Jean 425 

Irving,  Washington  ....  217 
Isaiah 250 

Jefferson,  Thomas      ....    312 

Jerome,  Jerome  K 343 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel  .  .  66,  427 
Jones,  Sir  William  ....  238 
Joubert,  Joseph 59 


Keats,  John    ....   383,  389,  390 

Keeley,  James 26 

Kingery,  H.  M 308 

Kipling,  Rudyard   .    .  115,  214,  271 

Lamb,  Charles    ....      137,  396 

Langdon,  W.  C 176 

Lanier,  Sidney    ....      224,  402 
Lettsom,  William  Nanson      .    129 

Lewes,  G.  H v    349 

Lewis,  Sinclair 74 

Lincoln,  Abraham  7,  93, 136,  338, 359 

London,  Jack 230 

Longfellow,  H.  W.      .  331,  350,  416, 

417,  418,  422,  425,  426,  433,  434 

Lowell,  James  Russell  407,  409,  425 


Lucas,  E.  V. 
Luke    .    .     . 


396 
3;i4 


Mabie,  H,  W 74 

Macaulay,   Thomas   Babing- 

ton     .     .     .  131,  236,  315,  333,  352 

McComb,  E.  H.  K 178 

Mackaye,  Percy 179 

McKitrick,  May 74 

MacPherson,  James  ....  425 
Mahony,  F.  (Father  Prout)    .    134 

March,  P.  A 303 

Marlowe.  Christopher   .     .     .    410 

Mather,  Cotton 154 

Matthews,  Brander  ....  94 
Maupassant,  Guy  de .  .  .  .121 
Milton,  John     .     .     111,422,426,428 

Mitchell,  Donald  G 105 

Monroe,  James 98 

Montaigne,  Michel  de  .  .  .  349 
Montgomery,  James.  ...  405 
Moore,  Thomas  ....  396,  443 
Morris,  William  ...     12,  102,  116 

Moses 409 

Mother  Goose 433 

Moulton,  R.  G 409 

Mulock,  Dinah  M 200 

Newman,  John  Henry,  Car- 
dinal        232 


Olney,  Richard 


99        ' 


Parkman,  Francis  K.  ...  72 
Pater,  Walter     .     .    18,  26,  356,  383 

Paul 368,  408 

Phillips,  Charles     .     .  366,  369,  409 

Plato 413 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan    .    .    .      134,  425 

Pope,  Alexander 1 

287,  313,  404,  420,  422,  426 

Quintilian 319,  358 

Ramsay,  Allan 427 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan  .  .  209 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua  ...  65 
Riley,  James  Whitcomb  190,  433 
Rochester,  Earl  of  ....  432 
Roosevelt,  Theodore      ...    100 


18 


Index  of  Authors 


References  are  to  pages. 


Rosebery.  Lord 393 

Ruskin.  John  .  .  .  112,  224,  432 
Russell,  William  Howard      .    143 

Sand,  Georgre 72 

Sarcey,  M.  Francisque  ,  .  95 
Schiller.  Johann  von  ...  18 
Scott,  Sir  Walter  .  .  220,  301,  370 
Shakespeare,  William  ...  9 
111,  198,  '2m,  368,  404,  406,  407, 
408,  414,  417,  424,  4W,  521 
Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe  .  413,  421 
Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley  .  428 
Smith,  F.  Hopkinson      ...    122 

Smith,  Sidney 393 

Southey.  Robert 224 

Special  lists  .  .  225,  226,  227,  436 
Spencer,  Herbert  ....  45,  354 
Spenser,  Edmund  .     .  425,  426,  431 

Sprague,  Charles 366 

Stevens.  T.  W 179 

Stevenson.  Robert  Louis  .     .      18 
154,  216,  314,  351 

Stoddard 209 

Swift,  Jonathan,  Dean  .     .    .    2.'i5 
314,  354 

Tagore,  Rabindranath  .     .    .    39fi 

Tarbell,  Ida  M 7 

Temple,  Sir  William  ....    315 


Tennyson,  Alfred 115 

143,   212,   217,   224,  405,  406,  418 
422,  426,  522 
Thackeray,   William    Make- 
peace      210 

Thomson,  James 392 

Thoreau,  H.  D 305 

Tolstoi,  Count  Leo     ....    224 

Tooke,  Home 393 

Trench,  Richard  C 303 

Twain,  Mark  ....  224,  325,  395 

Van  Dyke,  Henry  .    .     16,  2.35,  444 

Verne,  Jules 154 

Virgil 424 

Wallace,  Lew 254 

Watterson,  Henry  ....  201 
Webster,  Daniel  .  .  351,  405,  407 
Wendell,  Barrett    .....      81 

325,  358,  361,  371,  421 

Whipple,  B.  P 394 

Whittier,  John  G ;^ 

Wilson 300 

Wilson,  Woodrow      .     .      100,  108 

Wister,  Owen 106 

Wordsworth,  Miss  ....  355 
Wordsworth,  William  .       59,  349, 

355,391,414,421,426 


Yeats,  W.  B. 


GC 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


